LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 



WILLIAM R/ HARPER, Ph.D. 

President of the University of Chicago 



ISAAC B/BURGESS, A.M. 

Associate Professor in the University of CnicAao 
Late of the Boston Latin School 




f^^3S 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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COPYEIGHT, 1894, BY 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 



H. & B. IND. ST. IN ENG. 



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PREFACE. 



In recent years the conviction lias frequently and emphatically 
been expressed that the grammar school course ought to be both 
shortened and enriched ; that much now in the course might be taken 
out, not only without loss, but with positive gain, and that much 
might be brought in which would make it a far more adequate prepa- 
ration for the high school. Many, including the authors of this book, 
believe that, while many pupils in our grammar schools will never 
be able to enter the high school, yet the principles of a true democ- 
racy demand that all should be so taught as to render it easy for 
them to advance in knowledge, if the way should be opened. 

In all high schools of good grade some foreign language is studied 
immediately upon entrance, and to many pupils it presents unusual 
difficulties. It is not too much to say that more than one half of the 
total number of failures in Latin in our high schools are due, not to 
any lack of capacity on the part of the pupil, or to any inherent diffi- 
culty in the language itself, but to a lack of practical mastery of 
English grammar. 

This little book is a modest attempt to secure better preparation 
for the language work of the high school by a scientific and thought- 
inspiring method of presenting English grammar, by a reduction of the 
number of facts presented, to the few actually essential, by increased 
emphasis on certain matters often neglected but essential to any real 
mastery of the subject, and by adapting the terminology and method 
of presentation more closely to that used in German and Latin 
grammars. 

These "Inductive Studies" were printed three years ago, and 
bound for ready reference with the " Inductive Latin Primer " of the 
same authors. They have now been very carefully revised, somewhat 
enlarged, and, by the efficient aid of the editors of the American 
Book Company, more perfectly adapted to the needs of our common 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

schools. It is believed that the book as it now stands, while giving 
direct and thorough preparation for the language-study of the high 
school, is equally well adapted to the needs of those whose school life 
will end with the grammar grade. 

One of the authors of this book was for several years engaged in 
teaching English grammar and the rudiments of Latin to the same 
pupils, and this book is an outgrowth of that somewhat unusual 
experience. 

These studies in English grammar require the use of a note-book 
in recording the results of the pupil's observation. The facts dis- 
covered by observation should be fixed in mind by constant practice 
in analyzing and parsing connected English, and in framing English 
sentences to illustrate grammatical forms or the rules of syntax. 

The authors do not believe that a pupil's understanding of rules is 
effectively tested by classified groups of examples, each group being 
placed under its own rule, and therefore have not swelled the book 
with such collections of examples. The pupil's knowledge of a prin- 
ciple will be best tested by requiring him to pick out concrete exam- 
ples of its application from several pages of connected English. 

It is suggested that the freedom of arrangement required in poetry 
makes it somewhat superior to prose as a means of expelling from a 
pupil's mind the delusion that word-order is a safe guide to grammat- 
ical construction. 

The passages in this book taken from Hawthorne's " Golden Touch " 
are used by permission of, and arrangement with, Messrs. Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co. 

In the preparation of these pages reference has been made to the 
English Grammars of Professors Whitney, Meiklejohn, Salmon, and 
Welsh. Mr. Byron Groce, Mr. John K. Richardson, Mr. Henry C. 
Jones, Mr. Francis De M. Dunn, all of the Boston Latin School, and 
Mr. Charles F. Kimball, of the Rice Training School, Boston, have 
rendered very valuable assistance in reading the proofs. Mr. Way- 
land J. Chase, of the University of Chicago, has aided in the revision 
by several excellent suggestions. 

WILLIAM R. HARPER. 



ISAAC B. BURGESS. 



University of Chicago, 
February, 1894. 



CONTENTS. 



PRONUNCIATION. 

Article 

Vowels 1 

Consonants 2 

Mutes and Li(juids 3 

Diphthongs 4 

Syllables 5 

Number of Syllables in a Word . 6 

Accent 7 

Vowels : 

How to find the Sound. 8 

Long and Short Sounds 8 

Vowels in Final Syllables end- 
ing in a Consonant 8 

Vowels before Two Consonants 9 
Vowels in Antepenultimate 

Syllables 10 

The Letter u in qu 11 

Consonants : 

The Consonants c, t, s, x 12 

Hard and Soft c and g 13 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Definition 14, 15 

Interjections 16 

Number and Grouping of the Parts 

of Speech 17, 18 

Use, not Form, determines Parts 

of Speech 19 

Words which do Duty as more 

than One Part of Speech 20 



INFLECTION. 

Article 

21 

Number and Declension 22 

Declension of Nouns 23 

Declension of Pronouns 24 

Form of Adjectives 25 

Comparison of Adjectives. .... .26-29 

Comparison of Adverbs 30 

Inflection of Verbs 31 

Participles and Infinitives 32 

Summary of Verbal Inflection. . . 33 
Conjugation; the New Conjuga- 
tion ; Principal Parts 34 

The Old Conjugation; List of 

Verbs 35 

Irregular Verbs of the New Con- 
jugation 36 

Conjugation of be, have, shall, 

and will 37 

Inflection by Combination 38 

Perfect, Imperfect, and Indefinite 

Action 39 

The Passive Voice 40 

Conjugation of love and "write 41 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 

Nouns 42 

Adjectives 43 

Adverbs 44 

Verbs 45 

Letters or Syllables Equivalent 

to Separate Words 46 



CONTENTS. 



SYNTAX. 

Analysis of Sentences: 

Article 

Subject and Predicate 47 

Modifying Words, Phrases, 

and Clauses 48 

Simple, ComiDlex, and Com- 
pound Sentences 49 

Declarative, Interrogative, and 

Imperative Sentences 50 

There and it as Expletives. . 51 

The Noun Clause 52 

Construction of Sentences. ... 53 

Correlatives 53 

Use of Diagrams 54 

Rules of Syntax: 

Nominative as Subject 55 

Transitive and Intransitive 

Verbs 56 

Object of an Active Verb 56 

Predicate Nouns and Adjec- 
tives 56 

Appositive Nouns and Adjec- 
tives 57 

Absolute Construction 58 

Verbs of making", asking*, 
and teaching in Active 

and Passive 59 

Adverbial Objective, or Ac- 
cusative 60 

Use of Prepositions and Prep- 
ositional Phrases 61 

Dative-Objective 62 

Genitive or Possessive 63 

Adjective 64 

Pronoun 65 

Agreement of Verb 66 

Indirect Discourse 67 

Infinitives * 68 

Temporal, Causal, Purpose, 
Result, Conditional, and 
Concessive Clauses 69 



Article 
Modes : Indicative, Impera- 
tive, Subjunctive 70 

Conditional Sentences 70 

The Preposition of 71 

The Word for 72 

The Preposition with 73 

Lack of Precision in the Eng- 
lish Use of Prepositions and 

Tenses 74 

Omission of Words 75 

Order of Words: 

Position of Certain Kinds 
of Words, Phrases, and 

Clauses 76 

Variability of Order of Words 76 

Meaning of Emphasis 77 

How to make a Word Emphatic 77 

Climax 77 



PUNCTUATION. 

Selection for the Study of Marks 78 

The Exclamation Mark 78 

The Interrogation Mark 78 

The Period 78 

The Semicolon 78 

The Comma 79 

The Parenthesis 79 

The Semicolon and Colon ; their 

Relation 80 

The Dash 81 

The Apostrophe 81 

Quotation Marks 81 

Use of Punctuation 82 

Capital Letters 83 

THE RELATION OF ENGLISH 
TO OTHER LANGUAGES. 

In its History and Vocabulary ... 84 

In its Grammar 85 



INDTJCTIYE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



o>^o 



PRONUNCIATION. 



1. Vowels. — The letters a, e, i, o, u, and y when it has 
the sound of i, are pronounced by a continuous flow of 
sound, and can be pronounced when standing alone .^ 

These letters are called Vowels. 

Note. — When, as in be-hav'-ior, the letter i is preceded by an 
accented syllable and followed by another vowel, it is a consonant 
with the sound of y. 

2. Consonants. — The other letters of the alphabet can- 
not be pronounced without checking the flow of sound 
by one or more of the vocal organs, nor without the aid 
of a vowel. Thus, in pronouncing the letter f the sound 
is checked by the lips and teeth, and the sound of e is 
inserted before that of f ; what we pronounce is really a 
combination of two letters, — ef . 

Such letters are called Consonants. 
What, then, is the difference between a vowel and a 
consonant ? 

3. Mutes and Liquids. — Those consonants in the pro- 
nunciation of which the sound is most completely checked, 
are called Mutes. They are c, k, g, q ; b, p ; d, t. 

1 This and the following sections on pronunciation should be vocally 
illustrated by the teacher. 

7 



8 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

It will be seen that these consonants are least like the 
vowels in their pronunciation. 

Those consonants which are most like the vowels in 
their pronunciation are called Liquids ; they are l and r. 

4. Diphthongs. — Study the sounds of ou and oi in 
the words oil, join, out, hound. Note that the vowels in 
ou and oi have practically combined to form a single 
sound. 

Such combinations of vowels are called Diphthongs. 

Note. — Consonants may combine to form a single sound. The 
letter x is often equivalent in pronunciation to cs or ks. 

5. Syllables. — Any letter or combination of letters or 
sounds which may be completely pronounced by a single 
movement of the voice may be a Syllable.^ All words 
consist of one syllable or more ; thus, — 

no-bod-y my-self a-way 

Pronounce the following common words carefully, just 
as you have heard them pronounced by educated people, 
and then write them, dividing them by hyphens into the 
syllables which you have pronounced.^ 

Is each syllable of these words pronounced with the 



same energy? 






^ 


metal 


purpose 


glistening 


maiden 


chiefly 


foolish 


loved 


planted 



1 May a vowel be a syllable, and if so, why ? 

2 Care should be taken that each syllable is distinctly pronounced. 
Remember that there is a clear, though very brief, pause after each syl- 
lable. Oral spelling, provided each syllable is pronounced immediately 
after it is spelled, is an excellent means of cultivating the sense for 
syllables, which, for some reason, very many high-school pupils lack. 



PRONUNCIATION. 9 

6. Number of Syllables in a Word compared with the 
Number of Vowels. — In the following words compare the 
number of vowels and diphthongs with the number of 
syllables : — 



pos-si-bly 


gar-den 


loved 


chief-ly 


bet-ter 


mu-sic 


choose 


thought 


fond-er 


more 


be-cause 


be-hav-ior 



1. In which of the above words is the number of vowels 
and diphthongs the same as the number of syllables? 

2. In which is the number of vowels and diphthongs 
greater than the number of syllables ? 

3. In the latter, are there any silent vowels ? 

4. If there were no silent vowels in English, what would 
be the rule for the number of vowels and diphthongs in a 
word as compared with the number of syllables ? 

7. Accent. — In the pronunciation of all English words 
of more than one syllable, one syllable is made prominent 
by a special loudness, distinctness, and energy of utter- 
ance, called Accent. 

Accent may be described as a stroke of the voice, and 
it is indicated in written or printed language by a down- 
stroke just at the end of the accented syllable ; thus, — 

syl'-la-ble ex-ceed'-ing-ly 

To the Teacher. — The pupil should have ample drill in distinct 
syllabication and definite accentuation. Do not allow any slurring of 
final syllables in words or sentences. It may be a help to represent 
syllables and accents graphically ; thus, — 

ex-ceed-ing-ly 

Note that the lines which represent the syllables do not touch one 
another. What does this mean ? 



10 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS. 

8. When we know the pronunciation of a syllable, and 
wish to find the sound of a single letter or group of letters 
in that syllable, we do so by gradually taking away the 
sound of the other letters, until only the letter or group 
in question remains ; thus, — 

mate, mat, ma, a. 

But we must be very careful not to change the sound 
of the letter in question during the process. 

1. Find and contrast the sound of the underlined vowels 
in the following familiar words : — 

a. mate Eve fine note use type 

b. mat end fin not us myth bot-tom feel-ing 

The sound which we give to the vowels in the first line 
is called the long sound, and is indicated thus : — 

mate 

The sound which we give to the vowels in the second 
line is called the short sound, and is indicated thus : — 

mat 

Let the pupils, singly or in concert, be prepared to give 
the long and short sounds of the vowels. 

2. Judging from the words above, what is the sound of 
all vowels in final syllables ending in a consonant, count- 
ing one-syllable words as final syllables? What is the 
sound of vowels in final syllables ending in e silent? 

9. Study the following words, noting particularly the 
sound of the underlined vowel in each: — 



PRONUISrCIATION. H 

Mary evil pining fogy flute 

marry elbow pinning foggy flutter 

Also 

election flexile calendar rapture ringing construct 

1. Give the meaning of each of the above words. 

2. Which of the vowels underlined above are immedi- 
ately followed by two consonants before another vowel is 
reached ? 

3. Why should the first e in flexile be included in this list ? 

4. What is the sound of each of these vowels ? 

5. If these words represent the tendency in English 
pronunciation fairly, in what position may we expect to 
find short vowels ? ^ 

6. Study the following examples for an exception to 
this rule : — 

acre fragrant oblige idle 

7. Kepeat the list of mutes and that of liquids, and 
then see if you can state this exception. 

8. From the definition of a liquid, what reason can you 
suggest for this exception ? 

10. The next to the last syllable is called the Penult. 
The syllable before the penult is called the Antepenult. 
Observe the sound and position of the vowel in the ante- 
penultimate syllables of the following words : — 

na'-tion-al (cf. nation) cred'-i-ble (cf. cre-dence) 

vin'-e-gar (cf . vine) Mar'-y-gold (cf. Ma-ry) 

par-tic'-u-lar prob'-a-ble vic'-to-ry 

1 Note that the word "tendency" is used. While there are many 
exceptions to the tendencies of the language indicated in this and the fol- 
lowing sections, still it is believed that a knowledge of these tendencies 
will be very helpful. AVhile English pronunciation is a sore puzzle, it is 
not quite so lawless as is generally supposed. 



12 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



And contrast 














dr-a-logue 








vi'-o-let 




dS'-i-fy 


Also 














pa^-tri-ot 








in-te'-ri-or 




ma^^ni-ac 


And also 














cu'-po-la 


u^ 


-ni 


-ty 


cu^-cum 


-ber 


lu'-bri-cate 



1. What, from the above examples, seems to be the rule 
for the length of vowels before one or more consonants 
in antepenultimate accented syllables ? 

2. What examples show that this rule does not hold 
when the vowel of the penult is followed immediately by 
another vowel? 

3. What examples show that the vowel u does not con- 
form to the rule ? 

11. The Letter u in qu. — What letter represents the 
sound of u in the following words ? 

equity liquid quick queen quantity 

By what consonant is u preceded in these words ? 

RULES FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS. 

12. Study the sound of c, t, and s, when underlined in 
the following words : — 

ar-ti-fi'-cial con-fi-den'-tial na'-tion spe'-cies 

ex-cur'-sion ap-pre-hen'-sion so'-cial as-so'-ci-a'-tion 

1. What sound is added to that of the underlined c or 
s in the above words ? 

2. In what respect is the sound of the underlined t 
similar to that of the underlined c or s ? 

3. What kind of a syllable invariably precedes c, s, or t ? 



PRONUJN^CIATION. 13 

4. What Yowel invariably follows ? 

5. Why should the x in anxious and noxious follow the 
same rule ? 

13. Note the sound of c and g in the following words : — 

sagacity center secrecy physic club region surgeon 

ague acid election physical cod cub edge 

grave go game gypsy gun cant mug 

1. What two sounds has c in the above words ? 

2. What two has g ? 

3. Pick out the words in which c has its soft sound, or 
sound of s. 

4. Pick out the words in which g has its soft sound, or 
sound of j. 

5. Before what three vowels only does the soft sound 
of c and g occur ? ^ 

1 Only those principles of English pronunciation have been introduced 
which seemed most helpful to later study. It is believed that what has 
here been given will be useful, not only in pronouncing the mother-tongue, 
but also as a preparation for the English pronunciation of Latin. The 
teacher should see to it that these principles are applied to pronouncing 
English words never before seen by the pupils. Too often pupils pro- 
nounce their mother-tongue wholly by imitation. 



THE PARTS OP SPEECH. 

14. Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and a 
king besides, whose name was Midas ; and he had a little 
daughter whom nobody but myself ever heard of, and whose 
name I either never knew or have entirely forgotten. So, 
because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to call her 
Marygold. Hawthorne : Wonder Book, 

1. Are there any things which we know which can- 
not be known through any of the five senses? Make a 
list of all the names of persons and things in the above 
extract.^ 

Such names are called Nouns. 

2. What word in the above, containing only one letter, 
is used instead of the name of the person who is speaking? 
What advantages are there in using such a word? Can 
you find any other words which take the place of nouns in 
the passage ? For what noun does each stand ? 

Words which are used instead of nouns are called Fro- 
NOUNS. Pro, which is the first syllable, means instead of. 

8. What words in the passage assert some action ? 

A word which asserts is called a Verb. 

Make as many assertions or statements as possible, using 
only the nouns, pronouns, and verbs which you have col- 
lected. See if you can make a statement without using a 
verb. See if you can make a statement without using 
a noun or pronoun. 

1 In answering this and the following questions the teacher may allow 
the pupil to omit the more difficult instances. 

14 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 

4. What words in the passage on page 14 are used to 
describe nouns? 

Such words are called Adjectives. 

The pupil will observe that a word which describes a 
noun also limits the number of objects which that noun 
can name. Thus the words, rich man, apply to a more lim- 
ited number than the word man ; the words, little daughter, 
to a more limited number than daughter ; this king to 
only one, while the word king may be applied to scores 
of people. 

Therefore an adjective is sometimes said to limit as well 
as describe. Indeed, some adjectives, like this, the, two, 
some, seem hardly to describe at all, but only to limit. 

6. There are also words which describe or limit the 
action of verbs. Pick them out in the passage. 

Such words are called Adverbs. The word adverb 
means near a verb. 

In the expression, a very rich man, we have an adverb, 
very, limiting an adjective, rich ; and we might say, Mary- 
gold loved her father very dearly, where dearly must be 
an adverb, because it describes loved, and yet^is itself lim- 
ited by the adverb very. Therefore an adverb may limit 
an adjective or an adverb as well as a verb. 

6. Observe in the passage the use of upon, in the expres- 
sion upon a time ; but, in the expression but myself ; and 
for, in the expression for little girls. 

It will be seen that upon connects time with lived, but 
connects myself with nobody, and for connects girls with 
names, and that each of these words, upon, but, and for, 
connects a noun or pronoun with something else, and 
shows some sort of a relation between the noun or pronoun 
which follows it and the word with which that noun or 
pronoun is connected. 



16 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

Such words are called Prepositions. 
7. Study the statement 

There lived a very rich man, and he had a little daughter. 

It is evidently made up of two statements, — There lived 
a very rich man and The man had a little daughter, united 
by the word and. 

In like manner the statement 

So, because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to 
call her Marygold, 

is made up of two statements, — I choose to call the little 
daughter Marygold, and I love odd names for little girls, con- 
nected by the word because. 

Words which, like and and because, connect statements, 
are called Conjunctions. 

The conjunction seems many times to connect words 
used in the same way, as in the sentence 

He gave all his thoughts and all his time to this one purpose. 

What two words used in the same way does the con- 
junction here connect? Can you show, however, by insert- 
ing two omitted words, that there are really two complete 
statements here ? 

15. Observe how all the different classes of words in the 
passage we have been studying are connected. The pro- 
nouns take the place of nouns, the verbs when united 
to nouns or pronouns make assertions, and no assertion 
can be made with noun or verb alone. The adjectives 
describe the nouns, the adverbs describe the verbs, the 
prepositions connect nouns or pronouns to something else, 
and finally, statements are connected by the conjunction. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 

Speech often means the union of words to express ideas. 
Why then are nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., called Parts 
OF Speech? In what respects is the statement of an idea 
like the human body ? 

16. Interjections. — Study the words Poh, Alas, and Ah 
in the following sentences : — 

a, Poh ! my dear little girl, pray don't cry about it. 

h, Alas ! what had he done ? 

c. Ah ! so you have made a discovery ? 

1. In what respects are the three words just mentioned 
used in the same way ? 

2. Under which of the classes called parts of speech 
may these three words be classified ? 

3. What does the punctuation immediately after each 
show as to their connection with the rest of the sentence ? 

Such abrupt expressions of feeling are called Interjec- 
tions, meaning words thrown into speech without being a 
part of it. 

Since these interjections go along with speech, however, 
they are usually called parts of speech. They seem to 
bear about the same relation to the statement which they 
accompany as a ring on the hand bears to the body. 



NUMBER AND GROUPING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

17. Let us now group the parts of speech in two 
ways, in order to gain a more perfect understanding of 
them. 

First we shall group them as to their use or office in a 
statement or assertion. 

1. What two parts of speech are used as names? 

IND. STUD. IN ENG. — 2 



18 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

2. What is the asserter in every assertion ? ^ 

3. What are the two describers or limiters in an asser- 
tion? 

4. What are the two connectors ? 

6. Is the interjection properly a part of speech ? If not, 
why not? 

6. What reasons are there for classifying it as such? 

7. How may we make out eight parts of speech ? 

8. How may we reduce this number to six ? 

9. Is there any reason for reducing the number to only 
four? 

It is usual to give the number of parts of speech as 
eight. It seems more correct, however, to call it six. 

18. Let us now, in the second place, group the parts of 
speech in accordance with their relation to the noun and 
verb. 

1. Why are the noun and verb considered the most 
independent and essential parts of speech ? 

2. What is the substitute for the noun ? What is the 
describer of the noun ? What is the connector of the 
noun? 

3. What is the describer of the verb ? 

4. What is the connector of two assertions ? 

19. Use, not Form, determines the Part of Speech. — Let 
us now return to the study of our passage. We found 
that in this passage time was a noun, very was an adverb, 
rich was an adjective, man was a noun, name was a noun, 

1 The definition of the verb here given does not provide for interroga- 
tive and imperative sentences. Indeed, it is probably impossible to define 
the verb briefly and clearly so as to include such sentences. The inter- 
rogative and imperative forms, however, may be so easily changed to 
declarative that this definition will not be found seriously inadequate. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 

but was a preposition. What are these same words in the 
following statements ? 

a. You time your speed. 

5. They man their boats. 

<?. Midas was the very man. 

d. The rich are envied. 

e. They name their daughter Marygold. 
/*. He went away, but I stayed at home^ 

We find — do we not ? — that exactly the same words 
have in different statements been quite differently used, 
and hence have become other parts of speech. Is not the 
lesson of this fact plain ? It is that the spelling — or, as 
we would better say, the form — of a word does not show 
what part of speech it is. This is determined wholly by 
its use in a statement. 

Hence we must not try to tell the part of speech of 
a word until we see it used in a statement. Very 
many words, like those in the six sentences we have just 
compared, are used as different parts of speech in different 
assertions. 

To the Teacher. — Too great emphasis can hardly be given to the 
above lesson. The pupil should have much practice in using one word 
as different parts of speech. A firm and consistent application of the 
principle that the part of speech is determined by use, and not by 
form, will do more than any other one thing to simplify English 
grammar. 

Such an expression as '' an adjective used as a noun " is a contra- 
diction in terms. If any word is used as a noun, it is a noun, since 
use alone determines the part of speech. The expression quoted cer- 
tainly implies that something else than use determines the part of 
speech, and the beginner concludes that it is the form of the word. 
It would be correct to say " a word usually an adjective, but here a 
noun," though in many cases the use of a word is so various that it is 
impossible to say which part of speech it usually is. 



20 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

20. Words which do Duty as more than One Part of 
Speech. — Study the words underlined in the following 
sentences : — 

a. Raising his head, he looked the lustrous stranger in the 
face. 

5. After carefully locking the door, he took a bag of gold. 

C, If these flowers were golden, they w^ould be worth the 
plucking. 

d, I choose to call her Marygold. 

e. Once there lived a king whose name was Midas. This 
king was fonder of gold than of anything else. 

f. Though he slay me, yet w^ill I trust in him. 

g. He had a little daughter, and he called her Marygold. 
h. He had a little daughter w^hom he called Marygold. 

1. Observe that in a the word raising not only de- 
scribes the following pronoun he like an adjective, but 
also expresses action and affects the noun head by its 
action. Furthermore, it is formed by adding an ending to 
the verb raise. Although it is like a verb in expressing 
action, it cannot be one, for it makes no assertion, like the 
verb looked, for instance, in the same sentence. 

An adjective which is similar in form and meaning to a 
verb is called a Vekbal Adjective, and some verbal adjec- 
tives, like raising, are called Participles. 

2. In sentences 5, <?, and d^ note that locking, plucking, 
and to call are the names of actions expressed by the verbs 
lock, pluck, and call. They are, therefore, verbal nouns. 

Such verbal nouns as these are called Infinitives. 

3. In 6, note that this limits the meaning of king, 
and is therefore an adjective. It refers, however, to King 
Midas mentioned in the preceding sentence, and has, there- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

fore, to some extent the use of a pronoun, though it only 
refers to a noun and does not take its place. 

We therefore call it a Prokominal Adjective. Make 
a sentence in which this will be a pronoun. 

4. In sentence /, note that though not only limits the 
verb slay like an adverb, but also connects the statement 
in which it stands with the statement, yet wni I trust in 
him. 

It is therefore both a conjunction and an adverb, and is 
sometimes called a Coiitjunctive Adverb. 

5. Note, in g and A, that whom in li takes the place of 
the conjunction and and the pronoun her in g, 

A word which thus does the work of a conjunction and 
a pronoun is called a Relative Pkonoun. 

6. From what immediately precedes, it will be seen 
that many words discharge, to some extent, the ofSce of 
more than one part of speech. But note further that in at 
least three of these cases there is no doubt as to how we 
shall classify the word in question. 

The verbal adjective or participle is always an adjective 
and never a verb, because it always describes a noun and 
never asserts. (See 14, 3.) A verbal noun or infinitive is 
always a noun and never a verb, because it always names 
but never asserts ; and a pronominal adjective is always an 
adjective and never a pronoun, because it always limits and 
never takes the place of a noun. (See 14, 2.) 

In the case of the conjunctive adverb and the relative 
pronoun, however, the single word seems clearly to do the 
work of two parts of speech. 



INFLECTION. 
CASE. 

21. Note the connection of each underlined word in the 
following sentences with the other words in the same state- 
ment or sentence : — 

a. The father loves his daughter. 

h. He loves his daughter. 

c. The father is loved by his daughter. 

d. The father's gold will be given to his daughter. 

e. The daughter gives her father a rose. 

f. The daughter gives him a rose. 

g. She loves him . 

h. Father, may I go ? 
i. She goes with him. 
j. She goes with her father . 

1. We note that father in a and c and he in h are the 
persons made most prominent in these sentences : they are 
the subjects of discourse, and so are said to be the Subjects 
of the sentence. 

In i and /, however, him and father are not the subjects, 
but are connected to a more important word by the prepo- 
sition with. 

It is therefore plain that a noun or pronoun may have 
different relations to the other words of the sentence in 
which it stands. The relation in which it stands to the 
other words of the sentence is called its Case. 

If a word is the subject of a sentence, it is said to be in 

22 



INFLECTION. 23 

the Nominative Case ; if it is the object ^ of a preposi- 
tion, it is in the Objective, or Accusative, Case. 

The word father is the same in spelling or form in both 
the nominative and the objective. How is it with the 
pronoun he ? Cf . (that is, compare) ^. 

2. There are still other cases or relations of nouns and 
pronouns. The words father's before gold and his before 
daughter in d show that the father possesses the gold and a 
daughter. 

This relation is therefore called the Possessive, or Gen- 
itive, Case. 

How does his differ in form from he ; father's from 
father ? 

3. Again, the words father and him in e and / have the 
action of the verb exerted indirectly, not directly, upon 
them. (The direct object in each case is rose.) 

This relation of indirect object is frequently called the 
Dative Case, but in English grammar is usually classed 
under the Objective Case. 

Does the form of the dative differ from that of the 
objective or accusative ? Cf . g^ z, and j, 

4. In A, the word father designates the person who is 
addressed. 

When so used, a noun is sometimes said to be in the 
Vocative Case, though it is usually classed under the 
nominative. 

Is the vocative case closely connected with the rest 
of the sentence ? 

Compare the vocative father in h with the nominative 
father in a. Do these cases differ in form ? 



1 The meaning of this word when used of prepositions is explained on 
page 22. 



24 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IJST ENGLISH. 

NUMBER AND DECLENSION. 

22. Let us study the underlined words in the following 
sentences : — 

a. The fathers love their daughters. 

h. The fathers' gold wHl be given to their daughters. 

c. The daughters give their fathers roses. 

d. They go with their fathers. 

e. Fathers, love your daughters. 

f. They love their daughters. 

g. Their gold will be given to their daughters. 
A. The daughters give them roses. 

i. They go with them. 

1. A noun which, like father, names a single person or 
thing, is in the Singular Number ; a noun which, like 
fathers, names more than one, is in the Plural Number. 

In what different cases is the word fathers used in the 
sentences above ? Pick out each different use. 

In what different cases is the pronoun of which they is 
the nominative plural used in the above sentences ? 

2. Note that father is changed to father's to show that 
the father possesses something instead of does something 
(as in 21, a), and that fathers is changed to fathers' for 
the same reason. Therefore the form is changed, to in- 
dicate a difference of relation to the other words of the 
sentence. 

In the change from the nominative singular father to the 
nominative plural fathers, however, there is no difference 
in relation, but there is a difference of meaning. 

A change in the form of a word to indicate either a change 
of relation or a change of mining is called Inflection. 



INFLECTION. 25 

The complete and orderly inflection of a noun or pro- 
noun is called its Declension. 

3. In declining a noun or pronoun it is customary to 
write the cases in the following order, — nominative (voca- 
tive), possessive (genitive), objective (dative, accusative), 
— and to write the singular before the plural. 

Decline father and he, selecting the different case-forms 
from the sentences we have just been studying. 









Singulqr 




Plural 


Nom 


(Nom. 
' i Voc. 


} 


father 
father 


he 


fathers they 
fathers 


Poss. 


( Gen.) 




father's 


his 


fathers' their 


Obj. 


(Dat. 
( Accus. 


} 


father 


him 


fathers them 


father 


him 


fathers them 



4. As to the cases which are alike, the word father is a 
fair sample of all nouns, and the word he is a fair sample 
of several pronouns. (1) What cases then are always 
alike in nouns both in singular and plural ? (2) Answer 
the same question in regard to the pronoun he. (3) What 
case differs in form from the nominative both in singular 
and in plural, and in both nouns and pronouns ? (4) What 
case, though like the nominative in nouns, is different 
from the nominative in the pronoun he? (5) What is 
the exact difference between the possessive singular and 
possessive plural of father? (6) Fill out the following 

blanks : — 

Singular Singular 

Nom. (Voc), Obj. (Dat., Ace.) father Nom. he 

Poss. (Gen.) Poss. (Gen.) 

Obj. (Dat., Ace.) 

Plural Plural 

Nom. (Voc), Obj. (Dat., Ace) Nom. 

Poss. (Gen.) — — Poss. (Gen.) 

Obj. (Dat., Ace) 



26 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES UsT ENGLISH. 



(7) How many different forms has every English noun ? 

(8) How many has the pronoun he ? 

Though there are only two forms of the English noun 
in each number, there are more than two cases. Usually 
there are said to be three cases, the nominative, possessive, 
and objective ; but we may add to the number by distin- 
guishing special uses, and so have the nominative, nomina- 
tive-vocative, possessive or genitive, dative-objective, and 
accusative-objective — five in all. 

23. Declension of Nouns. — Study the following declen- 
sions : ^ — 

Sing. 
Nominative (Nom., Yoc.) box 
Possessive (G^n.) box's 

Objective (Dat., Ace.) box 

Plur. 
Nominative (Nom., Voc.) boxes 
Possessive (Gen.) boxes' 

Objective (Dat., Ace.) boxes 

Sing. 
Nominative (Nom., Yoc.) man 
Possessive (Gen.) man's 

Objective (Dat., Ace.) man 

Plur. 
Nominative (Nom., Yoc.) men 
Possessive (Gen.) men's i 

Objective (Dat., Ace.) men 



Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


lass 


ox 


child 


lass's 


ox's 


child's 


lass 


ox 


child 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


lasses 


oxen 


children 


lasses' 


oxen's 


children's 


lasses 


oxen 


children 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


mouse 


boy- 


day 


mouse's 


boy's 


day's 


mouse 


boy 


day 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


mice 


boys 


days 


mice's 


boys' 


days' 


mice 


boys 


days 



1 Many pupils do not know the facts and rules here illustrated. Special 
attention should be given to the nominative and possessive plural. In 
parenthesis are given the names of the cases as they are usually desig- 
nated in German, Latin, and Greek. The great advantage, to the pupil 
about to begin Latin, of knowing the names and some of the uses of five 
of the Latin cases will be apparent. 





INFLECTION. 




27 




Sing, 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Nominative (Nom., Voc.) 


lady 


pony 


hoof 


calf 


Possessive (Gen.) 


lady's 


pony's 


hoof's 


calf's 


Objective (Dat., Ace.) 


lady 


pony 


hoof 


calf 




Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Nominative (Nom., Yoc.) 


ladies 


ponies 


hoofs 


calves 


Possessive (Gen.) 


ladies' 


ponies' 


hoofs' 


calves' 


Objective (Dat., Ace.) 


ladies 


ponies 


hoofs 


calves 



1. (1) How does the nominative plural of box and lass 
differ from that of father in ending ? (2) Name other words 
which add -s to form the nominative plural. (3) Others 
which add -es. 

From these words it appears that as a rule we add -es 
when the nominative singular ends with such a sound that 
if -s is added, the sound of e is produced in the effort to 
pronounce this s. 

2. What two letters (preceded by r in the case of child) 
are added to ox and child to make the nominative plural? 
There are very few words thus declined. 

3. (1) What part of the words man and mouse is 
changed in forming the nominative plural? (2) Compare 
them in this respect with the other words declined above. 
(3) Give other words declined like man and mouse. 

4. (1) In what respect are the four words below alike ? 



boy 



day 



lady 



pony 



(2) What difference is there in the formation of the 
nominative plural between the first two and last two? 

(3) What kind of a letter stands before y in boy and 
day? (4) What in lady and pony?- (5) What then 
seems to be the rule for the formation of the nomina- 
tive plural of nouns ending in y ? 



28 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

5. (1) What is the likeness of ending between the 
nouns hoof and calf? (2) What is the difference in the 
formation of their nominatives plural ? 

Some nouns ending with the sound of f form the plural 
like hoof, some like calf ; but there is no rule regulating 
the matter, as in the case of nouns ending in y. 

6. (1) What difference is there between plurals like 

oxen children men mice 

and all the other plurals here given ? (2) What important 
difference in the possessives plural as compared with the 
other possessives plural ? 

7. It will be seen that while most nouns in English form 
their nominative plural by simply adding -s, there are sev- 
eral other ways of forming the plural. In other words, 
there are several different declensions in English. 

24. Declension of Pronouns. — Write eight sentences 
illustrating the use of the four singular and four plural 
cases of the pronoun she, just as was done with he in 21 
and 22. Now decline she in the singular and in the plural, 
selecting the proper cases from your sentences. 

Repeat this process in the case of the pronouns it, I, 
•who, which, that (as in all that glitters is not gold), what, 
this, that (as in I know that), and in the case of thou, but 
write ten cases of thou. Why can we write ten cases of 
thou, but only eight of the other pronouns ? 

Compare the plurals of he, she, and it. 

I, thou, he, she, it are called PERSONAL PRONOUNS ; this 

and that (when used like this) Demonstratives. 

Be very careful about the use of the word that. Give 
sentences in which it will be successively a demonstrative 
pronoun, a demonstrative adjective, a relative pronoun, and 
a conjunction. 



INFLECTION. 29 

THE FORM OF ADJECTIVES. 

25. Are adjectives inflected ^ for case and number? 
Since the adjective is not an independent part of speech, 
but only describes or limits some noun or pronoun, if in- 
flected at all, it seems natural that its inflection should 
correspond or agree with that of the noun which it de- 
scribes. 

To see whether people are accustomed to do this, let us 
use any adjective we may choose, with every case and both 
numbers, of the word father as used in the sentences for 
study in 21 and 22. If we use, for instance, the adjective 
rich, we shall find that we say 

rich father, with her rich father, 

rich father's gold, rich fathers, etc., 

and that no change is made in the form of rich to corre- 
spond with changes in the form of father. 

This is so with all adjectives but this and that. 

What change is made in these adjectives when a change 
in the case of the noun is made ? What, when the num- 
ber of the noun is changed ? 

Why should not the form of all adjectives be varied to 
correspond with different cases and numbers of the nouns 
which they describe, just as the form of this varies for 
singular and plural ? It certainly would not be strange if 
they did so, and we know that this was formerly the case 
in English, and is now the case in many other languages.^ 

1 What is the meaning of this word? See 22, 2. 

2 The writer knows a little boy, just learning to talk, who uses such 
expressions as freights cars, flcwers gardens. This shows, perhaps, a 
feeling on his part that the adjective ought to agree with the noun. 



30 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

26. Study the adjectives underlined below : — 

a rich man a richer man the richest man 

(1) What changes have been made above in the form 
of rich ? (2) What changes have been made in the mean- 
ing by the endings? (3) Why should richer be called 
the comparative ^ degree, and richest the superlative ? 
(4) Why do we say a rich man, but the richest man ? 

Rich is said to be in the Positive Degree, and the pro- 
cess of changing the form of an adjective, as it is done 
above, is called Comparing. 

27. Study the underlined adjectives below : — 

a beautiful child 
a beautifuler child 
the beautifulest child 
a more beautiful child 
the most beautiful child 

(1) Is there any difference of meaning between beauti- 
fuler and more beautiful? The latter is preferable. Con- 
trast the two methods of comparison illustrated above. 
(2) To what word is the ending -er equivalent in mean- 
ing? (3) To what, the ending -est? (4) What parts 
of speech are more and most? Cf. 14, 6, very rich. 

Long words are usually compared by means of the 
adverbs more and most, less and least. 



1 Let the pupil look up the meaning of these words in the dictionary, 
if necessary. 



INFLECTION. 31 

28. Study the following adjectives. They show the 
comparison of all adjectives ending in -e, -y, and in a con- 
sonant preceded by a short vowel. 

pure "water, purer, purest 

the early bird, earlier, earliest 

a sad sight, sadder, saddest 

(1) Are the above adjectives compared, like rich, by 
adding -er and -est to the positive ? (2) If not, give the 
rule for comparing adjectives ending in -e. (3) For those 
ending in -y. (4) For those ending in a consonant pre- 
ceded by a short vowel. 

29. 1. Several adjectives are irregularly compared ; as, 
good, better, best many or much, more, most 
bad or ill, -worse, worst near, nearer, nearest or next 
little, less, least far, farther, farthest 

2. Name several adjectives which from the nature of 
their meaning are used only in the positive. 

3. In such colloquial expressions as 

•we had a most agreeable visit, 
the words a most agreeable do not have the proper superla- 
tive force of preeminence to all others, as is shown by the 
use of the article a instead of the ; they seem to be equiv- 
alent to a very agreeable. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

30. In the following sentences, pick out the adverbs : — 
He came soon. He came sooner than was expected. He 

■wrote well. She wrote best. They crossed the ocean more 
safely than their friends. 

(1) Are any adverbs compared? (2) How are those 
given above compared ? 



32 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

31. Study the verb-endings in the following short 
sentences : — 

a. He loves, they love. 5. Thou lovest, I love. 

c. They love, they loved. 

1. (1) What is the only difference in the form of the 
two verbs under a? The only difference in the meaning 
of he loves and they love is that in the first example the 
assertion is made of one person, in the second, of more 
than one. (2) To what, then, is the difference in the 
form of the verbs owing? (3) Is the verb always in- 
flected to show a difference in number? Cf. I love and 
we love. 

2. In 5, however, there is certainly no difference in the 
number of the subject, and the assertions state that the 
acts described in each case are in present time. To what, 
then, is the difference in the form of the verb owing ? 

That difference in the form of the pronoun which shows 
whether it refers to a person (or persons) speaking, to a 
person spoken to, or a person spoken of, is called a differ- 
ence of Person. The person speaking is called the first 
person ; the one spoken to, the second person ; and the one 
spoken of, the third person. 

Name the pronouns of each person. (See 24.) Which 
person of the verb is used with all nouns ? Let the pupil 
put several nouns into sentences, and answer from his own 
observation. Which person of the verb is most used ? 

3. In c there is no difference of number or of person, 
and yet the verbs differ in form. (1) To what is this dif- 
ference in form owing? 



INFLECTION. g3 

A difference in the form of a verb which shows a differ- 
ence in the time of the action denoted by the verb is called 
a difference of Tense. (2) What are the only three possi- 
ble distinctions or divisions of time which can be made ? 
(3) What two of these appear in the sentences oi c? 

The preceding study shows that the verb is inflected 
in order to show differences in time, or tense, and also be- 
cause of differences in the number or person of its subject. 

Name the three inflectional endings which you have just 
learned, and state very definitely the use of each. 

32. Participles and Infinitives. — Study the meaning, use, 
and form of the underlined words below : — 

a, A loving daughter. 

b. A loved daughter. 

C. He was loved by all. 

d. To love ^ God is the duty of man. 

e. Loving is better than hating. 

Note that the underlined words, though evidently 
formed from the verb love, are not verbs, for they do not 
assert anything. (See 14, 3.) (1) What part of speech is 
each ? (See 20, 1, 2.) (2) What difference is there in time, 
or tense, between loving and loved ? (3) What difference 
in form ? (4) Compare the form of the past tense and 
that of the past participle. (5) Give several other verbs 
which form their past tense and past participle by adding 
-d or -ed to the simple infinitive. 

33. Summary of Verbal Inflection. — Study the following 
verb-forms, comparing those above the horizontal line with 
those below : — 

1 In the expression he will love, love is an infinitive. 

IND. STUD. IN ENG. 3 



34 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



Sing. 
I love 
thou lovest 
he loves 

Plur. 
we love 
you love 
they love 

Sing. 
I loved 
thou lovedst 
he loved 

Plur. 
■we loved 
you loved 
they loved 



Present Tense. ^ 

Sing. 
I call 

thou callest 
he calls 

Plur. 
we call 
you call 
they call 



Sing. 
I learn 
thou learnest 
he learns 

Plur. 
we learn 
you learn 
they learn 



Past Tense. 
Sing. Sing. 

I called I learned or learnt 

thou calledst thou learnedst " learntest 
he called he learned " learnt 



Plur. 
we called 
you called 
they called 



Plur. 
we learned or learnt 

you learned " learnt 
they learned " learnt 





Present Tense. 




Sing. 
I write 
thou writest 
he writes 


Si7ig. 
I sing 

thou singest 
he sings 


Sing. 
I dig 

thou diggest 
he digs 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


we write 


we sing 


we dig 


you write 
they write 


you sing 
they sing 

Past Tense. 


you dig 
they dig 


Sing. 
I wrote 
thou wrotest 
he wrote 


Sing. 
I sang 

thou sangest 
he sang 


Sing. 
I dug 

thou duggest 
he dug 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


we wrote 
you wrote 
they wrote 


we sang 
you sang 
they sang 


we dug 
you dug 
they dug 



1 It seems best to defer the subject of mode until syntax is reached, 
since the imperative and subjunctive have no forms not found in the 
indicative, and the modal idea is difficult for beginners. 



iNFLECTlOlsr. 



85 







VERBAL FORMS.l 










Infinitives. 






love 


call 


learn write 


sing 


dig 


to love 


to call 


to learn to write 


to sing 


to dig 


loving 


calling 


learning writing 
Present Participle. 


singing 


digging^ 


loving 


calling 


learning "writing 


singing 


digging 



Past Participle. 
loved called learned written sung dug 

or learnt 

34. The systematic arrangement of all the forms of the 
verb, as in the preceding article, is called Conjugation. 

What is the similar arrangement of the forms of the 
noun and pronoun called? (See 22, 2, 3.) 

1. The verb love represents a large class of verbs ending 
in -e silent. Note that such verbs add -d in the past tense 
and past participle instead of -ed, as in called, and -st in 
second person singular of the present tense instead of -est, 
as in callest. Note, however, that the ending of the forms 
called and loved is the same. 

2. Learned and learnt are substantially the same in form, 
for in learned the e before d is silent, the -ed does not form 
an additional syllable, and the -d has nearly the sound of t. 
There is a tendency, at the present time, to write the end- 
ing -t instead of -ed in such cases. 

3. Those verbs which, like love, call, and learn, have the 
past tense and past participle alike, and regularly form 

1 The following forms, though not strictly verbs (see 14, 3, and 32), 
are usually classed with them. 

2 The g is doubled in the middle of the word on the principle illustrated 
by sad, sadder, in 28. 



Se INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

* 

both by the addition of -d, -ed, or -t to the infinitive, are 
said to belong to the New Conjugation, or, as it is some- 
times called, the regular, or weak conjugation. 

4. Bearing in mind the suggestions of 1 and 2, write all 
the different forms of love, caU, and learn, including infini- 
tives and participles. How many are there ? Write the 
same forms of write, sing, and dig. Why is there one more 
of these forms in write and sing than in the other verbs ? 
Verify from your own observation of the above six verbs 
the following statements : — 

(1) The past tense sometimes differs from the past 
participle. 

(2) The second person singular of the present tense, the 
third person singular of the same tense, and the present 
participle may always be formed by adding -est, -s, and -ing, 
respectively, to the simple infinitive or to the simple infin- 
itive less a final silent -e. 

(3) The second person singular of the past tense is 
formed by adding -est or -st to the first or third person 
singular of the same tense. 

Therefore if the simple infinitive, the third person singu- 
lar of the past tense, and the past participle are known, all 
the other inflectional forms of the verb can be formed. 

From this fact, and from the frequency with which these 
forms are used, they are called the Principal Parts of 
the verb. 

35. The Old Conjugation. — The three verbs write, sing, and 

dig belong to what is called the Old Conjugation. At 
first sight these verbs seem to have nothing in common. 
They are, however, alike in two or three particulars. 
Learn thoroughly the following list of very common 
verbs of the old conjugation, and tell in what respects 



INFLECTION. 



37 



they are alike. Specially important or difficult verbs are 
underlined. 



Infinitive, 






Past tense. 


Past participle. 


bear, to 


give 


birth to 


bore 


born 


bear, to 


carry 


bore 


borne 


beat 






beat 


beaten 


blow- 






blew 


blown 


break 






broke 


broken 


bite 






bit 


bitten or bit 


choose 






chose 


chosen 


come 






came 


come 


do 






didl 


done 


draw 






drew 


drawn 


drive 






drove 


driven 


eat 






ate 2 


eaten ^ 


fall 






fell 


fallen 


fight 






fought 


fought 


fly (cf. flee, 


36) 


flew 


flown 


freeze 






froze 


frozen 


get 






got 


got, gotten 


give 






gave 


given 


g2 






went^ 


gone 


hold 






held 


held 


know 






knew 


known 


lie (cf . lay, 36) 


lay 


lain 


ride 






rode 


ridden 



1 The final d is not here -d added to do, but the word did is formed by 
placing the letters di before the d of do and dropping the o. 

2 There is also a past tense and past participle eat, pronounced et. 
^ Eeally the past tense of wend regularly used as the past of go. 



38 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

Infinitive. Past tense. Past participle. 



ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


see 


saw 


seen 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


sit (cf . set, 36) 


sat 


sat 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


stand 


stood 


stood 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tore 


torn 


■wear 


wore 


worn 


win 


won 


won 



1. From an examination of this list, it appears that the 
verbs of the old conjugation (1) always change (at least in 
pronunciation) the vowel of the infinitive in either the 
past tense or past participle, or in both; (2) never add 
anything to the infinitive to form the past tense (except 
sometimes a silent final e) ; and (3) if they add anything 
to form the past participle, add -en or -n. 

How, then, is the old conjugation distinguished from the 
new conjugation ? Cf . 34, 3. The old conjugation is some- 
times called the strong, or irregular, conjugation. 

2. Note with care the fact that some of the verbs 
of the old conjugation have the past tense and past 
participle alike, while in many they are different. A com- 
mon mistake is to use the past tense instead of the past 
participle ; to say, for instance, it is broke, instead of it is 
broken. 



INFLECTION. 



39 



36. Irregular Verbs of the ITew Conjugation.^ — There are 
some verbs of the new conjugation which, while regular 
in having one form for past tense and past participle and 
in forming it by adding -ed, -d, or -t, are irregular in mak- 
ing some change in the vowel or vowels within the infini- 
tive, in suffering some contraction, or in having a past 
participle like that of the old conjugation. The following 
are the most common of these. Specially difficult verbs 
are underlined : — 



Infinitive, 


Past tense. 


Past participle. 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


cut 


cut 


cut 


creep 


crept 


crept 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


flee (cf. fly, 35) 


fled 


fled 


have 


had 


had 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 



1 The teacher can hardly insist too rigidly upon a mastery of the verb- 
forms in this and the preceding article, and upon a clear idea of the dis- 
tinction between conjugations. Macy pupils will be found who do not 
know the parts of many English verbs so as to use them correctly in 
sentences. Moreover, such a distinction will help toward an understand- 
ing of conjugation in Latin, and particularly in German. 



40 



USTDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



Infinitive, 


Past tense. 


Past participle. 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt 


knelt 


lay (cf. lie, 35) 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


let 


let 


let 


light 


lit (or lighted) 


lit (or lighted) 


make 


made (for maked) 


made 


meet 


met 


met 


pay (cf. say) 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


put 


read (cf. lead) 


read 


read^ 


rend 


rent 


rent 


say 


said 


said 


seek 


sought 


sought 


send 


sent 


sent 


set (cf . sit, 35) 


set 


set 


sell (cf . tell) 


sold 


sold 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


show 


showed 


showed or shown 


shut 


shut 


shut2 


sow 


sowed 


sdwed or sown 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


spread 


spread 


spread 


streTv 


strewed 


strewed or strewn 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 



1 Cf . the pronunciation of past tense and past participle with that of 
infinitive. 

2 In what letters do all verbs, having all three parts alike, end ? 



INFLECTION. 



37. Conjugation of Be, Have, Shall, and Will. 

jugation of these four useful verbs is irregular ; 



41 

■The con- 





Present Tense. 




Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


I am 


I have 


I shall 


I will 


thou art 


thou hast 


thou shalt 


thou wilt 


he is 


he has 


he shall 


he wiU 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


we are 


we have 


we shall 


we will 


you are 


you have 


you shall 


you w^ill 


they are 


they have 


they shall 


they will 




Past 


Tense. 




Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


I was 


I had 


I should 


I V70Uld 


thou wast 


thou hadst 


thou shouldst 


thou wouldst 


he was 


he had 


he should 


he would 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


Plur. 


we were 


we had 


we should 


we would 


you were 


you had 


you should 


you would 


they were 


they had 


they should 


they would 



VERBAL FORMS. 

Infinitives. 
be, to be, being have, to have, having (wanting) (wanting) 

Present Participle. 
being having (wanting) (wanting) 

Past Participle. 
been had (wanting) (wanting) 



42 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

1. Giye the principal parts of these verbs. 

2. To what conjugation do have, shaU, and will belong ? 

3. The verbs can, past could, and may, past might, also 
lack the infinitive and participles, like shall. 

38. Inflection by Combination. — Compare the following 
sentences : — 

a, I love. c, I shall love. e. He -will love. 

h, I loved. d. Thou wilt love. 

1. What is the tense of a? hi c^ d^ and el 

2. How do we know, from its form, that loved in I loved 
is past? How do we know, from the form, that will love 
in he will love is future? Note, then, that the word will 
in the combination will love expresses time like the letter 
-d in the word loved. 

3. We have seen that a change in the meaning or rela- 
tion of the verb may be denoted by a change in the letters 
of which it is composed; now we find that a change in 
meaning may be effected by combining two words. 

This process, called Inflection by Combination, is 
much employed in changing the meaning of verbs. 

4. What verb is used to express futurity in the first 
person? What in the second and third? 

39. Perfect, Imperfect, and Indefinite Action. — Study the 
following sentences : — 

a. He loves. h. He is loving. c. He has loved. 

1. In what time is the action represented in each of 
these sentences ? 

2. What difference is there between h and c as to the 
completeness of the action represented? The verb in a 
does not distinctly mark the action as either incomplete 



INFLECTION. 43 

or complete ; it is therefore called the Peesent Indefi- 
nite. The combination is loving is called the Present 
Progressive or Present Imperfect, and has loved the 
Present Perfect. It is manifest that in the past and 
the future also the action may be represented as indefi- 
nite, imperfect, or perfect. So represent it in the case of 
the verb love. 

3. Do the terms '' perfect " and " imperfect " when 
strictly used apply to the tense or the action of the verb ? 

40. The Passive Voice. — Compare the three pairs of sen- 
tences which follow : — 

a. I love. (?. I loved. e. I shall love. 

6. I am loved. d. I was loved. f, I shall be loved. 

1. Is there any difference in tense, number, and person 
between a and J, c and cZ, e and/? 

2. What, then, is the difference of meaning in each 
case ? This difference lies in the relation of the subject to 
the verb. The combinations am loved, was loved, and shall 
be loved, are said to be in the Passive Voice ; the word 
passive meaning suffering^ or enduring, 

8. What is it that is suffering or enduring when a pas- 
sive verb is used, — the verb or its subject ? 

41. Conjugation of Love and Write. — The following is the 
conjugation of love and write in the third person singular, 
not only by simple inflection, but also by combination.^ 
(See 33 and 37.) 

1 It is not claimed that the conjugation here given is exhaustive ; it is 
nearly complete for the three time divisions and the three possibilities as 
to completeness or incompleteness of action. Compare it with the Latin 
indicative, noting the Latin tenses which cover two of those here given. 



44 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



Indef. he loves 
Imp, he is loving 
P/. he has loved 



Present Tense. 
Active Voice. 

he writes 
he is writing 
he has written 



Passive Voice. 
Indef. he is loved it^ is written 

Imp. he is being loved it is being written 

Pf. he has been loved it has been written 



Indef. he loved 
Imp. he was loving 
Pf* he had loved 2 



Past Tense. 

Active Voice. 

he wrote 

he was w^riting 

he had w^ritten 



Passive Voice. 
Indef. he was loved it was written 

Imp. he was being loved it was being w^ritten 

Pf he had been loved it had been written 



Future Tense. 
Active Voice. 
Indef. he will love he will write 

Imp. he w^ill be loving he will be writing 

Pf he "Will have loved he will have written 

Passive Voice. 
Indef he will be loved it will be w^ritten 

Imp. (not in use) (not in use) 

Pf he w^ill have been loved it will have been written 

1 It is important to note that comparatively few verbs have such a 
meaning as to admit all persons in both active and passive. Let the pupil 
illustrate this v^ith a number of verbs. 

2 The past perfect is often called the pluperfect tense. 



lNFLECTIo:^f. 45 

VERBAL FORMS. 

Infinitives. 

Active. 

Indef. love, to love, loving write, to write, writing 

Imp. to be loving to be writing 

Pf. to have loved to have w^ritten 

Passive. 

Indef. be loved, to be loved be written, to be "written 

Imp. (not in common use) (not in common use) 

Pf. to have been loved to have been -written 

Participles. 
Active. 
Indef. (not in use) (not in use) 

Imp. loving writing 

Pf. having loved having written 

Passive. 
Indef. loved written 

Imp. being loved being written 

Pf having been loved having been written 

1. (1) What four verbs are combined with love and 
write to make the compound forms ? — For a verb not 
given in this article, cf . 38. — (2) What verb enters into 
every passive combination ? (3) What is the voice of 
loved and written? (4) What is the exact difference, 
then, in meaning and in formation between he was loving 
and he was loved ?^ (5) What participle is invariably 
used in imperfect tenses ? (6) What participle in passive 
forms ? 

1 This is a question of great importance. If it is thoroughly and 
clearly comprehended and answered, a most prolific source of error will 
be at once removed. 



46 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

2. A word, letter, or syllable which invariably accom- 
panies a tense and distinguishes it from other tenses, is 
called the sign of that tense. (1) What are the signs of 
the future in both voices ? — Note that the sign differs in 
different persons. — (2) Of the present perfect ? (3) Of 
the past perfect or pluperfect? (4) Of an imperfect? 
(6) Is the verb be a sign of the passive ? Cf . he is writ- 
ing, he was loving. (6) What is the ending of the past 
passive participle in the new conjugation ? (7) What in 
the old, whenever this participle has any ending? 

3. In addition to the verb combinations just given, such 
groups as he has been writing, he had been writing, are not 
uncommon. 

What words in these groups show that the action referred 
to is now complete ? What word shows that it was going 
on in the past ? 

The verb do is combined very commonly with other 
verbs in such phrases as 

a. Do you skate? C. I do (skate). 

h. Do come early. d. He did not come. 

e. It does move. 

Note that do is used in questions and answers, in com- 
mands, in negative and emphatic statements. Cf. 46, and 
68, 6. 



FORMATION OP WORDS. 

42. Nouns. — What is the whole difference of meaning 
between he and she, king and queen, boy and girl, son and 
daughter ? 

He, king, boy, and son are said to be of the Masculine 
Gendek, because they designate males ; and she, queen, 
girl, and daughter of the Feminhste Gendek, because they 
designate females. 

Most nouns have no gender, since they designate neither 
males nor females,^ and are sometimes called Neuter, 
which means neither. The pronoun it is used in referring 
to nouns which have no gender. 

1. Study the words : — 

act execute 

actor actress executor executrix 

found enchant 

founder foundress enchanter enchantress 

also god, goddess ; lion, lioness ; prince, princess. 

(1) What endings are used in the above words to change 
a masculine into a feminine noun ? (2) What to denote 
the feminine agent? (3) What to denote the masculine 
agent ? 



1 That is, English distinguishes only two genders, and the gender is 
hased solely on sex. The Latin has the English gender distinction by 
sex, and in addition to it, but not in conflict with it, the system of gender 
distinction by endings. Only those nouns which have no gender accord- 
ing to the English system are divided into masculine, feminine, and 
neuter, by endings. 

47 



48 INDUCTIVE STUDIES M ENGLISH. 

2. Study the endings of the following words : — 
bullock, a little bull. lambkin, a little lamb. 
brooklet, a little brook. hillock, a little hill. 
baby kin, a little baby. hamlet, a little village. 
floweret, a little flower. cigarette, a little cigar. 
lancet, a little lance. sermonette, a little sermon. 

What is the meaning of diminutive? Give five diminu- 
tive endings. 

3. What is the ending, and what is its force in 

adornment, that which adorns; 
punishment, that which punishes ; 
atonement, that which atones ? 

What is the likeness, and what the difference of meaning, 
in atoner and atonement, punisher and punishment? Cf. 
42, 1. Note, however, that this ending in the above words 
may also name an action, or the result of an action. 

4. Study the following endings : — 

a. He creates — a creation. c. He feels — a feeling. 

b. He inclines — - an inclination, d. He covers — a covering. 

e. He possesses — a possession. 

What endings above express the action of the verb ? 

5. Study the endings and meanings of the following 
words : — 

bright, brightness true, truth "wise, -wisdom safe, safety- 
good, goodness -wide, -width free, freedom frail, frailty 

(1) What derivative endings name a quality? (2) 
From what part of speech are the nouns here given de- 
rived? (3) What likeness in meaning is there between 
this part of speech and these nouns ? 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



49 



43. Adjectives. — Study the endings and meanings of the 



following 


adjectives : 


— 






foolish 


golden 


wonderful 


lustrous 


(from lustre) 


Turkish 


wooden 


beautiful 


grievous 


( " grief) 


whitish 


royal 


blamable 


furious 


( " fury) 


smallish 


brutal 


laughable 


horned 


manly 


hearty- 


helpless 


despotic 


turreted 


lovely 


misty 


heartless 


historic 


sugared 


lowly 



1. What two adjective endings above meo^n full of? 

2. Which ending means provided or furnished ivith ? 

3. Which has the meaning somewhat^ to a certain degree ? 

4. Which means made of denoting material ? 

5. Which means like ? 

6. What endings mean simply belonging to ? 

7. How would you make an adjective meaning not to he 
resisted ? 

8. What adjectives above are like this? This last end- 
ing, however, has sometimes the meaning simply like or 
belonging to. 

44. Adverbs. — Note the ending of the adverbs merrily, 
carefully. Is every word with this ending an adverb? 

1. Learn the following list of very common adverbs, 
with the exact meaning of each, comparing with the pro- 
nouns on the left : — 



^ronouns. 


Place in tvJiich. 


Place to which. 


Place from which, 


h-e 


h-ere 


h-ither 


h-ence 


th-at 


th-ere 


th-ither 


th-ence 


wh-o 


wh-ere 


wh-ither 


wh-ence 



2. What is the first letter of each word on the first line 
horizontally? What are the two first letters of those on 
second line ? Of those on third line ? 

IXD. STUD. IN ENG. 4 



50 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

3. Give the meaning of each of these adverbs by 
using a preposition and its case modified by an adjective. 

45. Verbs. — Note the endings of the verbs in 

They blacken their enemies' reputations. 
They harden their hearts. 

What is the ending of both these verbs ? What does this 
ending mean ? 

46. Letters or Syllables equivalent to Separate Words. — 
Compare the letters underlined in the first column with 
the words underlined in the second column, and cf. 38. 

lioness she-lion 

wooden made of wood 

he called i he did call 

the boy's hat the hat of the boy 

fonder more fond 

Note that the letters underlined in the first column have 
the same meaning as the words underlined in the second. 
We thus see that in inflection or derivation a letter or a 
syllable of a word has often the meaning of a whole word, 
and the latter may be substituted for it. We certainly 
ought not to be surprised if in other languages we find 
that only letters or syllables of inflection are used where 
the English uses separate words. 

1 The -ed in the ending of the past tense is only another form of the 
word did ; cf. 68, 5. 



SYNTAX. 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

47. Subject and Predicate. — As we have already seen, a 
sentence is simply a statement of some fact or thought. 

Let us study the following sentence to see how it is 
made : — 

Midas paused. 

1. We have here the statement of a fact. Here the 
statement is made about Midas, and it is clear that, if any 
statement is made, it must be made about some person or 
thing. 

That about which the statement is made is called the 
Subject of the sentence. 

2. The word paused asserts or says something about 
Midas. 

That which is said about the subject of the sentence is 
called the Phedicate, which means simply the thing said, 

3. Of how many words does this sentence consist? Let 
each pupil make five sentences containing only two words 
each, and distinguish the subject and predicate in each. 

48. Modifying Words, Phrases, and Clauses. — If we turn 
to any book, we shall find that very few of the sentences 
consist of but two words. We shall find sentences like 
the following : — 

a. The stranger gazed about the room. 

h. It was a young man with a cheerful face. 

C. To err is human. 

61 



52 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

d. He valued his royal crown chiefly because it was com- 
posed of precious metal. 

e. Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and he 
had a little daughter. 

f. All the beautiful roses that had so many lovely blushes 
are blighted and spoilt. 

g. This fabric had been transmuted to what seemed a 
w^oven texture of gold. 

1. In sentence a, stranger gazed would have been a sen- 
tence, but we find other words which give us new ideas 
about stranger and gazed. It was the stranger, and the 
words about the room tell how he gazed. 

Any combination of words which does not contain a sub- 
ject and a predicate is called a Phrase. 

Since the phrase about the room limits the verb gazed, 
to what part of speech is it equivalent? 

In sentence 5, the phrase with a cheerful face evidently 
describes the noun man. To what part of speech is it, 
therefore, equivalent ? 

What part of speech is the phrase to err in (?? 

2. In sentence c?, the words it was composed of precious 
metal limit the verb valued, by telling why. he valued the 
crown. If these words tell us something, they must 
make a sentence. What is the subject and what the predi- 
cate of this sentence? By what conjunction is it con- 
nected with the preceding sentence ? 

When two or more sentences are thus united, each is 
called a Clause. 

To what part of speech is this clause equivalent? 

3. What two clauses does the sentence / contain? 
What word does the clause beginning with that describe ? 
To what part of speech, then, is this clause equivalent ? 



SYNTAX. ' 53 

What clause is the object of the preposition to in ^? 
What part of speech is the object of a preposition ? Then, 
what part of speech is this clause ? 

49. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences. — We have 
seen that every sentence must contain a subject and a 
predicate, and that it need contain only two words, though 
it does usually contain more than this, because both sub- 
ject and predicate are enlarged, as it is called, by modi- 
fiers, which may be single words, phrases, or clauses. 
Again, we have learned that phrases and clauses maybe 
adjectives or adverbs or nouns, just as single words are. 

Phrases and clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun 
phrases and clauses, according to their use. (See 19.) 
Noun clauses are often called Substantive Clauses. 

1. Note now that sentences a, 6, and e consist of words 
and phrases, but contain only one subject and one predi- 
cate apiece. 

Such sentences are called Simple Sentences. 

2. Note that in d the chief statement. He valued his royal 
crown, is described by the less important statement, it was 
composed of precious metal, with which it is connected 
by the conjunction because. Which of these statements 
should be called principal, which subordinate ? ^ 

A combination of a principal and a subordinate clause, 
or subordinate clauses, is called a Complex Sentence. 
The subject or predicate without any enlargement is called 
the Simple Subject or Predicate. 

8. Note that sentence e really contains two statements ; 
namely. Once upon a time there lived a very rich man, and 
Once upon a time a very rich man had a little daughter, 

1 The pupil should consult the dictionary if he does not know the 
meaning of these words. 



54 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

united by the conjunction and. Are these statements con- 
sidered of equal importance^ or is one descriptive of the 
other, as in 6? ? 

Such a sentence is called a Compound Sentence. 

What is a compound sentence ? Show, from the above, 
how the device of uniting two statements saves words. 

4. The sentence/ is both complex and compound. Show 
that it is so. 

50. Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative Sentences. — 

Contrast the three sentences which follow : — 

a. What is your "wish, Midas ? 
h, TeU me your wish, Midas. 
c, Midas -wiU teU me his wish. 

1. Which of the above sentences is a question ? Which 
a command or request? Which a statement of fact? 
Which of them should be called declarative? Which 
interrogative ? Which imperative ? ^ 

2. Interrogative and imperative sentences must, of 
course, be addressed to somebody. What case and what 
person ought, then, to be expected in such sentences? 
Cf. 21, 4, and 31, 2. Pick out this case and this person in 
the sentences above. 

8. A verb, when used like the verb teU in 5, to express 
a command or request, is said to be in the Imperative 
Mode. In English this mode has but one form, and this 
is always the same as the second person plural of the 
present tense of the mode used in declarative sentences. 

4. Construct several interrogative sentences, and make 

^ The so-called exclamatory sentence may always be classified as inter- 
rogative or declarative. For the use of do in interrogative, negative, and 
imperative sentences, see 41, 3, 68, 5. 



SYNTAX. 65 

as large a list as you can of the words which stand first in 
such sentences. What short verb is often used to intro- 
duce them? Contrast the use of who in Who is there? 
and The man who is there is my uncle. 

The first who is called an Interrogative Pronoun. 
What other interrogative pronouns have we? (See the 
questions in this article.) Where do we find the word to 
which such pronouns refer ? 

5. Construct several imperative sentences. Where does 
the verb stand in such sentences ? Note that the subject 
of a verb in the imperative is rarely expressed. 

6. Strictly speaking, the interrogative and imperative 
sentences are not statements or assertions at all, and so 
not sentences according to the definition (see 47) ; but 
they can be so readily changed to the declarative form that 
this inaccuracy will cause but little difficulty.^ 

51. Use of ^ there ' and 4t ' as Expletives. — Study the use 
of there and it in the following sentences : — 

a. There lived a very rich man. 

h. He made it his custom to pass a portion of every day 
in a dark apartment. 

C. It was far more probable that he came to do Midas a 
favor. 

d. There was now a brighter gleam than before. 

Note that, in sentence a, there takes the place, at the 
beginning of the sentence, of the subject, a very rich man, 
about whom the statement is made. In 5, it takes the 

1 The pupil should have much practice in changing declarative sentences 
to imperative and interrogative, and vice versa. He should also be re- 
quired to select the interrogative and imperative sentences from continu- 
ous narrative, or colloquial, prose. 



66 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

place of the infinitive, to pass, following, which is the real 
object of made. What are the real subjects of the verb 
was in c and d ? 

Note, then, that there and it are often used to anticipate 
a noun coming later in the sentence, and to suggest that 
the real subject or object is not yet reached. When so 
used, there and it are called Expletives ; there retains its 
value as an adverb limiting the following verb, and it is a 
pronoun used as a substitute and temporary subject or 
object.^ 

52. The Noun Clause. — Study the noun clauses in the 
following sentences : — 

a. It was far more probable that he came to do Midas a 
favor. 

b. This fabric had been transmuted to "vsrhat seemed a 
woven texture of gold. 

c. Whether Midas slept as usual that night, the story does 
not say. 

d. He felt a presentiment that this stranger had come 
hither with the purpose of gratifying his wishes. 

e. My desire is that I may be faithful. 

1. Which clause is the subject of a sentence? 

2. Which receives the action of a verb ? 

3. Which is used after the verb to be ? 

4. Which is governed by a preposition ? 

5. Which means the same as another noun used imme- 
diately before it ? 

1 This expletive use is very common and very much neglected. Let 
the pupil make many sentences like those above. A study of the pronoun 
it in its various peculiar uses v^ill prove very profitable. See this word 
in Webster's International Dictionary. 



SYNTAX. 67 

A whole article has been given to the noun clause 
because of the difficulty which pupils have with it and 
because of its extreme importance. The pupil who really 
understands that a clause may have almost all the uses of 
a noun and also those of the adjective and adverb (see 

48, 2, 3, and 49), will have little difficulty with the gram- 
matical make-up of sentences. 

53. Construction of Sentences. — Study the connection of 
parts in the following sentences : — 

a. The transparent crystals turned out to be plates of 
yellow metal, and of course were worthless as spectacles, 
though valuable as gold. 

h. He recognized the same figure which had appeared to 
him, the day before, in the treasure-house, and had bestowed 
on him this disastrous faculty of the Golden Touch. 

c. The boiled egg immediately underwent a change similar 
to that of the trout and the cake. 

d. The solid metal so burned his tongue that he roared 
aloud. 

1. In a, what is the subject of the verb were? What 
other verb has the same subject? What grammatical 
device enables us to use one subject with two verbs ? (See 

49, 3.) What subject is used with two verbs in 5 ? What 
two nouns are connected with a pronoun by one preposi- 
tion in (?? 

The device (described in 49, 3) by which words are 
saved, makes long sentences a little less clear, and many 
pupils find it difficult to understand (what we have seen 
for ourselves in the above sentences) that two or more 
verbs may be used after one conjunction, or two or more 



68 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

nouns after one preposition. This difficulty is increased if 
one of the verbs is widely separated from its subject. 

2. The hearer or reader is sometimes helped to under- 
stand a sentence by the use in related clauses of words 
which suggest each other, such as so and that in d. 

Such words are called Correlatives. 
Use neither and nor in a sentence as correlatives. Use in 
sentences all the other correlatives of which you can think. 

3. The pupil must remember that every word in a sen- 
tence is connected in thought with some other word.^ He 
has already seen this for himself. Cf. 15. In taking up 
a new word, then, he must ask, " With what word is this 
word united in thought ? With what does it go to make 
sense ? " 

It is so evident that a sentence is a complete structure, 
made by fitting words together, that we speak of " building 
a sentence," and use the word Construction when we 
mean the relation which one word has to other words of 
the sentence in which it stands. 

4. The process of separating a sentence into its parts is 
called Analysis. These parts have very different gram- 
matical value. 

In sentence 5, what is the principal verb? (See 49, 2.) 
What noun receives the action of this verb ? What adjec- 
tive clause (see 48, 2, 3, and 49) describes this noun? 
What adverbial phrases modify the verbs of this adjective 
clause? 

54. Use of Diagrams. — The connection of the parts of 
a sentence may be indicated to the eye by what are called 
Diagrams. 

'1 What case and what so-called part of speech might be considered 
exceptions to the statement ? Are such words strictly *' in a sentence " ? 



SYNTAX. 



59 



Sentences (?, c?, 6, and a in the preceding article may be 
thus arranged in diagrams : — 



The 
boiled 



The 
solid 
d. metal 



immediately 
underwent 




so 
burnt 

that I 
he roared 

aloud 



the 1 the 
trout cake 



his 
tongue 



the 
same 
h. He recognized figure 




to him 

the day before 
in the treasure-house 
had appeared ^ 



and 



had bestowed 



on I 
him 



this 

disastrous 

faculty 



the Golden Touch 2 



1 For the present, verb phrases may remain unanalyzed. Later, how- 
ever, after they have been studied, analysis should be required. 

2 It is suggested that subordinate clauses be not analyzed very 
minutely. Too minute analysis may prove perplexing in complex sen- 
tences, and sufficient drill in the analysis of phrases will be given by the 
simple sentences. 



60 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



a. 



The 
transparent 

crystals 



yellow metal 
of I 
turned out to be plates 



/The 

( transparent ] ^"^ , 

\ crystals / were worthless 



as I 
spectacles 



of I 
course 



though 
(they were) valuable 

as I 
gold 

Note in the above diagrams that, while the word which 
receives the -action of a verb, and the noun or adjective 
after the verb to be are regarded as a part of the bare 
predicate, they are not considered so essential to it as the 
principal verb. 

1. How is this view indicated by the lines ? 2. What, 
in general, is the position of a limiting word ? 3. What 
of a connective ? 4. How is the fact that two nouns fol- 
low one preposition or two verbs one conjunction indi- 
cated? 5. Why is the pronoun which partly on the 
connecting line and partly double underlined? Cf. 20, 
5 and 6. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 



55. JTominative. 
sentences : — 



•Study the subjects of the following 



a» He lifted the door-latch. 

h, Midas lifted the door-latch. 

e. Its "weight made him sensible that it "was gold. 

d. The solid metal burnt his mouth. 

e. She had been transmuted by the effect of his kiss. 



SYNTAX. 61 

1. Which of the subjects above do you know to be nom- 
inative from their forms? Which one of them is the sub- 
ject of a passive verb ? 

Note that it is nominative, although not acting but acted 
upon. The subject of a verb ^ is always in the nominative 
case. 

2. Which of the subjects above are names of inanimate 
objects ? 

Note, then, that inanimate objects are capable of action, 
though, of course, not of voluntary, conscious ^ action. 
Make or find three other sentences in which things act. 

3. For the clause as subject, see 52. 

56. Study the predicates of the following sentences : — 

a. They sa-w me. 

h. It is I. 

c. Her little form gre"w hard and inflexible. 

d. I love odd names. 

e. Little Mary gold ran to meet him. 
f, Midas was called a happy man. 

1. Note that in some of the sentences above, the verb 
represents an action as passing over from the subject to 
some other object, — as being exerted upon something. 
Thus the word saw, in a, represents action exercised by 
the subject they upon me. So also with love, in d. The 
verbs is in J, grew in <?, and ran in e do not represent any 
action as being exerted upon the nouns or adjectives which 
follow them. 

1 It is not necessary to say a finite verb, for the English infinitive is 
not in this book regarded as a verb at all. 

2 If you do not know the meanings of " voluntary " and " conscious," 
look them up in the dictionary. 



62 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

Such verbs are called Intiiaksitive,^ while those which 
do carry over an action from the subject to some other noun 
or pronoun are called Teansitiye. 

2. In what voice is the verb in /? Note that in this 
sentence the word which is affected by the action of the 
verb — viz., Midas — is the subject, and hence in the nom- 
inative case. This will be clear if we substitute the pro- 
noun he (cf. 22, 3) and write He was called a happy man. 
But in the case of the active verbs in a and d the word 
which is affected by the action is not the subject. 

The noun or pronoun which receives the action of a 
verb is called its Object. The object of an active verb is 
in the accusative case. This is evident, in a, from the 
form of me.^ 

3. Note how necessary to the statements contained in 
these sentences are the pronoun I in 6, the adjectives hard 
and inflexible in (?, and the noun man in /. 

Because these words are so necessary in completing the 
assertion, or predication, of the verb, they are called Predi- 
cate nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. 

Note further that each of these words refers to the same 
thing as the subject of the sentence. A noun, pronoun, 
or adjective used in the predicate, not as an object but to 
refer to the subject and describe it, is in the same case as 
the subject. 

4. Note that in verb phrases (like was called, in /), 
formed by combining the verb be and a participle (see 39, 

i Note, however, that verbs usually intransitive are sometimes transi- 
tive ; v^e may say, e.g.^ he ran a race. We cannot tell whether a verb 
is transitive or not until we see it used. (See 19.) 

2 Pupils find much difficulty in distinguishing between the subject of 
the passive and the object of the active. The subject of the passive is 
in reality both subject and object. 



SYNTAX. 63 

40, 41), the participle is a predicate adjective describing 
the subject.^ 

57. Appositive. — Study the descriptive words in the 
following : — 

Near him was seated John Alden, his friend and household 
companion, -writing Tvith diligent speed. 

1. What is the relation of the nouns friend and com- 
panion to John Alden ? 

A noun which is thus used to describe another without 
the aid of any other word is called an Appositive. Such 
a noun is in the same case as that which it describes. 

In what respect is it like the predicate noun ? In what 
different ? 

2. What part of speech is writing? What does it 
limit? Note its position, following its noun. 

Such a word is called an Appositive Adjective. Note 
further that such an adjective may be separated from its 
noun by several words. 

3. For clause as appositive, see 52. 

58. Absolute Construction. — Study the grammatical con- 
nection in the following sentences : — 

a. The rear-guard of his army retreated, the front giving 
■way too. 

h. Open wide in her lap lay the well-worn psalm-book of 
Ainsworth, printed in Amsterdam, the words and the music 
together. 

1 The contents of tins section are of very great importance. Before 
going farther, the pupil should have much drill upon transitive and 
intransitive verbs, direct objects, and predicate nouns, both by con- 
structing sentences cohtaining these constructions, and by picking them 
out of connected narrative. 



64 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

^' He being successful, his opponents were removed from 
office. 

1. Note that the underlined phrases have no grammati- 
cal connection with the rest of the sentence. 

Words and phrases thus used are said to be in the Abso- 
lute Construction, ''absolute" meaning simply loosed 
from the rest of the sentence. 

Note further that each of these phrases contains a noun 
or pronoun, and that two of them contain a participle. 
This construction is very frequently formed by combining 
a noun or pronoun and a limiting participle. Judging 
from (?, in what case is this noun or pronoun ? 

2. The participle in the absolute construction must be 
carefully distinguished from the participle which limits 
some word intimately connected with the rest of the sen- 
tence. Thus printed, in 5, limits psalm-book, which is 
the subject of lay. (See 56, 4, and 57, 2.) i 

59. Study the objects of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences, and the change from active to passive : — 

a. His soldiers made him king. 

h. He -was made king by his soldiers. 

c. He taught me Greek. 

d. I "was taught Greek by him. 

e. I asked him his name. 
f, Midas touched the rose. 

1. How many objects have the verbs in a, c^ and el 
Note that king, in a, is the result of the action of the 
verb made upon him, and that king and him refer to the 
same person. Is this so in the case of the two objects of 

1 The narrative poems of Longfellow furnish 'excellent material for 
drill in the use of participles. 



SYNTAX. 65 

taught and asked, in c and e ? What other verbs take the 
same construction as made? Note the changes in the 
passive, and compare h with 5Q^ f, 

2. Change to the passive the sentence/, above. (1) What 
has the subject of the active verb become ? (2) What has 
the object of the verb become ? (3) How does the answer 
to the last question explain why an intransitive verb can- 
not be changed to the passive, z.e., can have no passive voice? 
(4) Why should there be no accusative as object of a pas- 
sive verb? (See 56, 2, and footnote.) 

Note, however, that in the case of the verbs teach and 
ask, one of the two accusatives remains an accusative even 
in the passive. Cf. Greek, in d. For the case of king, in 6, 
see 56^ f and 3. 

60. Study the words which limit the verb in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

a. He threw the ball three hundred feet. 

h. They fought the enemy five hours. 

c. They fought the enemy fiercely. 

d. The mountain was a mile high. 

e. Let us go home. 

f. Go west, young man. 

g. Then the disciples went away again to their own home. 
h, I go a-fishing. 

i. All aboard. All on board were lost. 

1. How do we know that the words feet, hours, and mile, in 
a^ 5, and c?, are not the objects of the verbs in the sentences 
in which they stand? Note that hours, in 5, although a 
noun, has almost exactly the same limiting force upon the 
verb as fiercely, in (?, and that mile, in c?, limits the adjective 
high like an adverb. 

IND. STUD. IN ENG. 5 



66 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

Words used like feet, hours, and mile are called Adver- 
bial Accusatives (or Objectives) of Measure; they 
are employed to express duration of time or extent of space. 

2. Are the words home and west, in e and /, nouns or 
adverbs? It is certain that they are used instead of a 
noun governed by a preposition, and in such sentences as 
^, where home is preceded by adjectives, the preposition 
to is still used. 

Note that home and west are very commonly used in 
such expressions as those above. Owing to this frequency 
of use, the preposition has been dropped to save time in 
speaking, or, as we might say, it has been worn away. 

We might call home and west Adverbial Accusatives 
(or Objectives) of Limit of Motion. Why would this 
be an appropriate name ? Sometimes in such expressions 
the preposition is not yet quite worn away, as in a-fishing 
and aboard, for on fishing and on board. We do say, 
however. Let 's go fishing. 

61. Study the use of prepositions in the following 
sentences : — 

a. The Golden Touch had come to him with the first sun- 
beam. 

b. That was the breakfast of the king. Cf. C. 

c. That was the king's breakfast. 

d. He attempted to swaUcw it in a hurry. Cf. e, 

e. He attempted to swallow it hurriedly. 

f. He gave apples to John and me. 

g. He had a little daughter, whom nobody but myself ever 
heard of. 

1. What nouns and pronouns in the above sentences 
are governed by prepositions ? These nouns and pronouns 
are in the accusative case. 



SYNTAX. 67 

2. For what case of the noun is the prepositional phrase 
of the king, in 5, a substitute ? To what part of the word 
king's is the preposition of equivalent in meaning ? Cf . 46. 

3. What does the phrase in a hurry, in c?, limit? To 
what word is it equivalent? Compare a man of honor 
and an honorable man. To what is the phrase of honor 
equivalent ? 

4. Note that, in /, the conjunction and does not at all 
affect the governing power of the preposition to, which 
affects the case of me as much as that of John. An 
ignorance of this truth as to the conjunction leads to many 
mistakes. The nominative I, for instance, is often incor- 
rectly used in such a case as the above. Cf. 53, l. 

5. By what preposition is whom, in g^ governed ? Then 
does the preposition always precede its case ? 

62. Dative-Objective. — Study the underlined words in 
the following sentences : — 

a. TeU me your -wish. Cf. Tell your -wish to me. 
h. He wished to bequeath her an immense pile of yellow, 
glistening coin. 

C, He came to do Midas a favor. 

d. Forgive us our debts, as "we forgive our debtors. 

e. This town was near (or next ^) them. Cf . near to them. 

f. The stranger's smile seemed to fill the room like an 
outburst of the sun. 

g. Alas me! the pitcher was no longer earthen. Cf. Woe 
is me ! 

1. Considering only the form of the pronouns, what two 
cases are possible for me, in a, and her, in 6 ? 

1 See 29, 1. 



68 mDUCTIYE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

Note that the use, or function, of these words is clearly 
different from that of the direct objects, wish, in a, and 
pile, in J, since the action of the verb is only indirectly 
exerted upon them. Since the cases are distinguished, 
not by their forms, but by their functions (see 21, 1), this 
function should have a name of its own. 

The indirect object is said to be in the Dative-Objec- 
tive Case. This case is most frequently used with 
verbs of giving and saying^ and those of similar meaning. 

2. In ^, while the adjective near describes town, the 
quality which it expresses is of most interest to them, and 
is said to be directed toward them. With near and like, 
whether adjectives or adverbs, the object to which the 
quality is directed may be put in the dative-objective. 
Like and near as adjectives in this use may be distinguished 
from prepositions by the fact that they describe some noun 
or pronoun. What construction is used with other adjec- 
tives which take an object for their quality, like good, easy ? 

3. In all the above sentences, what prepositional phrase 
may be used as a substitute for the dative-objective case ? 
Cf . 46 and 61, 2, 3. 

4. In many sentences the dative-objective is used in 
connection with an accusative-objective as direct object. 
Find an instance in the above sentences in which the dative- 
objective is used alone after a verb. Be particularly 
careful in such instances not to mistake it for a direct 
object in the accusative. 

5. We may frame a passive expression similar to a by 
saying I was told your wish. What does the dative me, 
of a, become in the passive ? 

Note that wish is still retained as object, though the 
verb is passive, and cf . 59, 2. 



SYNTAX. 69 

63. Genitive or Possessive. — Study the genitive cases in 
the following phrases : ^ — 

a. Her dear father's encircling arms. 

h. The polished surface of the cup. 

c, The suit burdened him with its weight 

d, A summer's day. 

e, A year's pay. 

f. His mind was in the state of a child's. 

g. The book is John's. 

1. For definition of the genitive case, see 21, 2. 

2. Note that the word father's describes arms in just the 
same way that encircling does. Father's seems, then, like 
what part of speech ? Think of an adjective which often 
has the same meaning as father's. 

Note, however, that father's here retains so much of the 
nature of a noun that it is described by the adjective dear. 
What word would have to describe it, if it were an ordi- 
nary adjective ? (See 14, 5.) 

3. For substitutes for the genitive, see 61, 2 and 3. 

4. Since a thing can hardly be said to possess anything, 
we do not commonly use the names of things in the geni- 
tive. What similar construction is used with names of 
things? Cf. &, above. 

Note, however, the use of its in c, and that of summer's 
and year's in d and e. In the last two words, the genitive 
seems to be Descriptive rather than possessive. What 
prepositional phrases might be well substituted for sum- 
mer's and year's ? Cf . 46. 

6. Note that in / the genitive form child's has become 
independent, as an adjective sometimes does, and is used 

1 The pupil should here review the declensions in 22, 23, and 24. 



70 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

as the object of the preposition of. Then in what case is 
it ? Note further the frequent use of a genitive as a pred- 
icate adjective, as in g. 

64. Adjective. — 1. For definition and use, see 14, 4. 

2. For the same form, used sometimes as adjective, 
sometimes as noun, see 19, d. 

3. For the pronominal adjective, see 20, 3. 

4. For inflection and derivation of adjective, see 25-29 
and 43. 

6. For the definition and use of verbal adjective, or 
participle, see 20, 1. 

6. For the kinds and uses of participles, see 32, 33, and 

41. 

7. For adjective phrases and clauses, see 48, l and 3. 

8. For predicate adjective, simple and verbal, see 56, <?, 
3 and 4. 

9. For appositive adjective and its position, see 57, 2. 

10. For participle in absolute construction, see 58. 

11. For adjective force of the genitive, see 63, 2. 

12. What do the adjectives in the following sentence 
limit ? 

I sa-w her going and coming, patient, courageous, and strong. 

Owing to the fact that an adjective which limits a pronoun 
is seldom found immediately before it, pupils sometimes 
get the idea that an adjective cannot limit a pronoun at all. 

13. Study the use of the participle in the following 
sentences : — 

a. He had planted a garden. 
h. He has fled. 

In a, we can easily explain the participle planted as a 
passive participle limiting garden, which is the object of 



SYNTAX. 71 

had, — he had a garden which was planted ; but the parti- 
ciple fled, in 6, cannot be so explained, for the verb flee is 
intransitive, and therefore has no passive. Cf. 59, 2. 

The fact is that in verb phrases compounded with have, 
the participial form has lost its proper force, and cannot 
always be explained grammatically. In all other verb 
phrases the participle has its proper adjective force. 

65. Pronoun. — Study the pronouns in the following 
sentences, and find the words to which they refer, z.^., 
their Antecedents : ^ — 

a. He valued his crown because it was composed of pre- 
cious metal. 

6. Once there lived a very rich man whose name w^as 
Midas. 

c, I, that speak unto thee, am he. 

1. (1) What is the gender, number, and person of it, in a ? 
(2) What of its antecedent? (3) What is the case of it? 
(4) What of its antecedent? (5) Answer the same 
questions in regard to whose, in 5, and its antecedent, and 
in regard to that, in c?, and its antecedent. (6) In what 
three respects does a pronoun agree mth its antecedent? 
(7) In what respect does it not agree ? 

2. The pronoun one in such sentences as any one will 
tell you, and whoever, as in whoever fails, I shall not, have 
no definite antecedents, and are therefore called Indefi- 
nite Pronouns. 

3. To what two pronouns maj^ what be equivalent in I 
know what he said ? 



1 The pupil should here review the definition of pronouns in 14, 2, 
their inflection in 24, and their gender in 42, 



72 



INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 



The word what may, then, be a Compound Relative, 
and contain its own antecedent. 

Note, however, that it may also be an interrogative 
pronoun. 

4. Which of the pronouns may become adjectives? 
Find out by using them in sentences. 

6. For the double use of the relative, see 20, 5 and 6. 

66. Agreement of Verb. — As we have already seen from 
31, the verb must agree with the subject in number and 
person. Show from this rule why we may say, I don't, but 
not he don't. 



67. Indirect Discourse. 

allel columns below : — 



- Compare the sentences in par- 



a, I don't care for such 
roses as this. 

c. He thought: "The best 
thing I can do for this dear 
child will be to bequeath 
her an immense pile of 
coin." 

e. How you have wet my 
nice frock ! 

g. What ! then you are not 
satisfied ? 

z. Go, then, Midas, and 
plunge into the river that 
glides past the bottom of 
the garden. 



5. Marygold said she didn't 
care for such roses as that. 

d. He thought that the best 
thing he could do for that 
dear child would be to be- 
queath her an immense pile 
of coin. 

f. He sees how he has wet 
her nice frock. 

A. He asked whether he 
Tvas not satisfied. 

y. The stranger told Midas 
to go and plunge into the 
river that glided past the 
bottom of the garden. 



1. The sentences on the left are fair samples of sentences 
in Direct Discourse ; those on the right, of sentences in 
Indirect Discourse. 



SYNTAX. 73 

Note that the former are the exact words of some 
speaker, writer, or thinker, in just the form in which he 
spoke or wrote or thought them ; while the latter are the 
same words closely joined and adapted, with as little 
change as possible, to the grammatical construction of a 
sentence in which they are quoted. 

In c the words directly quoted form a sentence which is 
the object of thought, but the direct quotation is neither 
closely joined nor adapted to the verb thought, as is 
indicated by the presence of the colon after thought. 

2. (1) What change in tense do you notice in passing 
from direct discourse to indirect, after a past tense ? 
(2) Is there a change of tense in a quotation after a 
present or future? Cf. e and/. (3) Is the tense of the 
subordinate clause of the quotation changed after a past 
tense ? Cf . i and j, 

3. What change of person do you notice ? Note, how- 
ever, that the third person is not the only one found in 
indirect discourse. Suppose, for instance, that the child 
mentioned in c should report her father's thought about 
her. What pronoun would she use in referring to herself? 

4. After what kind of verbs, as to meaning, do we 
make quotations? 

6. (1) Are interrogative and imperative sentences ever 
quoted ? (2) Can interjections or vocative cases be used in 
quotations ? Cf . g with A, and i with j. It will be noted 
that the indirect form is not only less animated and pictorial 
than the direct, but that it is also of necessity somewhat 
inaccurate in conveying a speaker's exact idea. (3) Point 
out in these sentences two or three instances of this.^ 

1 Let the pupil be drilled thoroughly in the peculiarities of indirect 
discourse both by framing and scrutinizing sentences. Such a drill will 
make the same subject in Latin much easier. 



74 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

68. Infinitives. — Study the infinitives in the following 
sentences : — 

a, Midas used to pass whole hours in fondly gazing at them. 

h. He could scarcely bear to see ^ any object that was not 
gold. 

e, Midas felt himself to be not quite so happy as he might 
be. Cf. d. 

d, Midas felt that he w^as not quite so happy as he might be. 

e. It would have been unreasonable to suspect him of in- 
tending any mischief. 

f. He was enraptured to see himself in a suit of gold cloth. 

g. Little Marygold ran to meet him. 

h» He beheld the bright glistening of the precious metal. 

Cf. i. 

i. He beheld the brightly glistening metal. * 

y. She did not walk. Did she run ? She did (run). 
k. She walked not. Ran she ? She ran.^ 

1. For definition of infinitive, see 20, 2 and 6. 

2. For inflection, see 33 and 41. 

8. It will be noted that the infinitive in the above sen- 
tences, in one or another of its forms, is used in almost 
every one of the functions of the noun. 

In which sentence or sentences is it the subject of a 
verb ? In which the object ? In which is it used as the 
object of a preposition ? 

Note that in/ and g it is an adverbial accusative. Why ? 
(See 60.) 

1 Note that for to see any object, the sight of any object might 
be substituted. 

2 The infinitive is perhaps the most difficult subject in English gram- 
mar, on account of the great variety of its uses. All of these uses will 
be understood if these sample sentences are mastered, 



SYNTAX. 75 

Note further that, though a noun, the infinitive has 
some of the functions of a verb. 

4. In which sentence or sentences is the infinitive 
modified by an adverb ? In which has it a direct object ? 
But note also that the infinitive does not assert (see 20, 6), 
and that it is usually dependent on some other word. 

5. Note that certain verbs from their very meaning 
require another action to complete their own. Such are 
the verbs use, in the sense of he accustomed^ a ; can, h ; wiU, 
e ; did, j. The infinitive is used to complete the action of 
such verbs, and is then called the Complementary (or 
filling out) Infinitive. This kind of an infinitive is very 
common in verb phrases, such as those in 41, and is often 
more essential to the meaning of such phrases than the 
independent verb with which it is used. 

The verb do is common in expressions like those under 
j ; ix,^ in negative sentences, and in questions and answers. 
Note carefuUj^, however, that the meaning of these expres- 
sions does not differ at all from that of the less common 
expressions of k. Why is the last word of j in parenthesis ? 

6. Cf. c and d^ and note that the infinitive with a sub- 
ject in the accusative case sometimes stands in indirect 
discourse. (See 67.) 

7. Note that in g the infinitive is equivalent in meaning 
to in order that she might meet him^ and expresses the Pur- 
pose of the running. Note, too, that in / the infinitive 
tells why he was enraptured, and is equivalent to the 
clause because he saw himself. The infinitive, then, may 
express Purpose or Cause. Cf. 69, 2, 3, 5. 

8. Cf . and distinguish the word glistening in h and i. If 
the word in in a were omitted, what would gazing become ? 
Note further that glistening in h has much more nearly lost 
its verbal force than gazing in a, and cf. 42, 4. 



76 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

69. Temporal, Causal, Purpose, Result, Conditional, and 
Concessive Clauses. — In the following sentences study the 
subordinate clauses, and try to distinguish the different 
ways in which they limit or enlarge the meaning of the 
principal clauses : — 

a. When he had saved enough money, he built a house. 
h. He built a new house, because his old house had been 
burned. 

c. He built a house to live in, or that he might live in it. 

d. He built so good a house that he lived in it many years. 

e. If he saved enough money, he built a house. 

f. Though he had but little money, yet he built a house. 

1. Note that the subordinate clause in a tells the time 
when the house was built. Such a clause is called a Tem- 
poral Clause. 

What are some other conjunctions, besides when, which 
introduce temporal clauses ? 

2. Note that the subordinate clause in b states a fact 
which explains the action of the principal clause, by telling 
us why that action was performed. Such a clause is called 
Causal. 

3. Note that in e the subordinate clause states a thought, 
or more definitely a purpose, which explains the action of 
the principal clause by telling the motive which prompted 
it. Such a clause is called a Purpose Clause. 

4. Note that the subordinate clause in d expresses the 
Result of the action of the principal clause. 

5. Pupils often find it difficult to distinguish between 
cause and purpose. Let this distinction be learned at 
once from these sentences. Note, then, that the causal 
clause states an actual fact which has occurred, but that 



SYNTAX. 77 

the purpose clause does not state a fact at all, but only a 
purpose, which may become a fact by being realized. 

Both the purpose clause and the causal clause state a 
reason by telling why he built the house ; but in one case 
the reason is the burning of the old house, in the other it 
is the purpose to live in a new one. Can we have a pur- 
pose without a person ? Can we have a cause without a 
person ? 

6. The result is the opposite of the cause. The cause 
must precede the action of the principal verb. The result, 
of course, follows this action. The fact that both the 
purpose and the result clauses are introduced by the con- 
junction that, will cause no trouble to the pupil who con- 
siders the meaning of these clauses. 

Let the pupil think of other facts, like the building of a 
house, and then frame sentences giving causes, purposes, 
and results in connection with these facts. 

7. Note that, in ^, we cannot tell whether he built a 
house or not, and that we are thus ignorant because we do 
not know whether he saved enough money or not ; ix.^ 
the fulfillment of the action of the principal clause is 
dependent upon the fulfillment of that in the subordinate. 
Such a subordinate clause is called a Conditional Clause, 
or Condition. 

Is there any other instance in these clauses where there 
is doubt about the occurrence of the principal action? 

8. Note that, in /, the action asserted in the principal 
clause is not what you would have expected from the 
statement of the subordinate. Yet granting or conceding 
the fact of the subordinate clause, the act of the principal 
clause did occur. Such a subordinate clause is called Con- 
cessive. 

Note that here, as well as in c?, the connection between 



78 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

clauses is made clearer by the use of correlatives. (See 
53, 2.) What are they in each case ? 

9. Note that, in a, the subordinate clause introduced by 
when, though expressing time as its primary idea, also sug- 
gests cause and condition. If we substitute for it the par- 
ticiple, thus, — • 

Having saved enough money, he built a house, 

the participle suggests about equally the three ideas con- 
veyed in the subordinate clauses in a, 5, and e. 

Of course, in connected writing, the comparative promi- 
nence of these three ideas of time, cause, and condition will 
depend largely upon the ideas suggested in the sentence 
which immediately precedes the one in question. 

70. Modes: Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive. Condi- 
tional Sentences. — Study the verbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

a. Thy will be done. 

h. How much would the orchard be worth if each of the 
trees were fruitful ? 

c. How much would the orchard be worth if each of the 
trees were to become fruitful ? 

d. How much will the orchard be worth if each of the trees 
shall become fruitful ? 

e. The orchard would have been worth much if each of the 
trees had become fruitful. 

f. Though he slay me, yet w^ill I trust in him. 

1. Note, in a, how the meaning is changed by using be 
instead of is. Thy will is done expresses a fact simply and 
directly ; but Thy will be done does not express a fact at 
all, but our desire that a certain thing may become a 



SYNTAX. 79 

fact. Here, then, are two ways or Modes of viewing an 
action, — as a fact, or as desired. 

2. A verb which presents an action as a fact is in the 
Indicative Mode ; a verb which presents it as desired, or 
for any other reason doubtful, is often ^ in the Subjunc- 
tive Mode; a verb which presents it as commanded or 
entreated is in the Imperative Mode. (See 50, 3.) 

3. Note that the subjunctive in the present tense, third 
singular, has be, where the indicative has is. This form is 
the same in all persons, both singular and plural. 

Note, in J, that the verb were has a singular subject. 
It could not, then, be an indicative, for in the indicative 
were is plural. It is a past subjunctive, and is the same 
for all persons and both numbers. 

Note, in /, that slay has no final s, as it would have if it 
were an indicative. The subjunctive of all verbs except 
the verb be has only a present tense, and has the form of 
the simple infinitive in all persons and both numbers. 

4. Note very carefully the different ideas expressed in 
the sentences 6, ^, d^ and e. Note that in each the princi- 
pal clause is modified by a subordinate clause which shows 
that the fulfillment of the action in the principal clause is 
dependent on the fulfillment of another action expressed 
in the subordinate clause. 

Such a subordinate clause is called a Conditional 
Clause, and the sentence containing it is called a condi- 
tional sentence. 

5. From sentence c?, we cannot tell at all whether the 
condition will be fulfilled or not ; in other words, the 



1 The idea of desire, doubt, condition, possibility, etc., is very often 
expressed by combining the verbs may, can, should, would, etc., with 
an infinitive ; thus, if he should go, they may go. 



80 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

sentence implies^ nothing as to the fulfillment of the 
condition. 

Give other sentences referring to the present and the 
past which imply nothing as to the fulfillment of the con- 
ditions contained in them. 

6. In (?, however, it is implied that the fulfillment of 
the condition is unlikely, though not impossible. By what 
change in the words of d is the change of idea produced ? 
What is implied in h and el What is the difference in 
the time of these sentences ? What mode is used in the 
conditional clause of 6 ? Contrast the form and meaning 
of h and c? 

71. The Preposition * of.' — Study the use of the preposi- 
tion of in the following phrases and sentences : — 

a. A crown of gold. 

h. The crown of the king. 

c, I never heard of her. 

d, Midas was fond of gold. 

e, The very tip-top of enjoyment. 

y. To suspect or to convict him of crime. 

g* He was possessed of this insane desire. 

Jl, A matter of course. 

i. Do you desire to rid yourself of this Golden Touch ? 

1 Let the pupil remember that many sentences contain enfolded within 
them, or in a single word imply, what they do not explicitly affirm. Thus 
if I say, Why did you go to Boston yesterday ? I imply not only that 
you went to Boston, but also that there is such a place as Boston, and 
that it is possible to go to it. Let the pupil illustrate further by other 
sentences of his own framing. 

2 For the syntax of adverbs, see 14, 5 ; for that of interjections, see 
16. 



SYNTAX. 81 

y. A heavy weight seemed to have gone out of his bosom. 
k. Within seven miles of Boston. 
I* All of us. 
m. The city of London. 

1. It will be evident at once that the preposition of is 
used in a great variety of ways and with many different 
meanings. It will help us in some cases to remember that 
the preposition of is simply a shorter form of off, and hence 
originally had the idea of separation conveyed by from. 
In Avhich phrases or sentences is this separative idea 
plainest ? 

2. (1) In which phrase or sentence is of with the accusa- 
tive a substitute for the possessive or genitive case ? (2) In 
which one does of mean made of^ — thus denoting material ? 
(3) In which does it mean concerning ? (4) In which is it 
used with an object to explain the application of an adjec- 
tive ? (5) In which does it mean hy ? 

3. Contrast the use of the preposition of in e and Z. In 
e the very tip-top expresses a part of all enjoyment, while, 
in Z, all is not a part of us, but refers to exactly the same 
people, and all of us means the same as we all. So, in m, 
city and London refer to the same thing, and the city of 
London means the same as the city London. 

The use of the preposition of, in g, is called Partitive, 
that in I and m is called Appositional. Cf. 57. 

72. The Word ^ for.' — Study the use of for in the follow- 
ing phrases and sentences : — 

Cl, A dozen oranges for a quarter. 
h. To fight for one's country. 
c. To send for aid. 

IND. STUD. IN ENG. — 6 



82 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

d» Good for food. 

e. He valued the sunbeam for this reason. 

f» To this dismal hole — for it -was little better than a dun- 
geon — Midas betook himself. 

g. Tall for his age. 

A. To sail for England. 

^. You may for all me. 

^. Imprisoned for life. 

1. (1) In which phrase or sentence does for mean in 
place of^ in return for ? (2) In which does it mean in 
behalf of? (3) In which does it mean because of? (4) In 
which is it a conjunction meaning because ? (5) In which 
does it mean in proportion to or considering? (6) In 
which does it mean during ? 

Note that the meaning of for aid, in c^ might be expressed 
by the words in order to get aid ; the meaning of for food, 
in c?, by to be eaten ; and the meaning of for England, in A, 
by in order that England may be reached. To what, then, 
is the prepositional phrase introduced by for sometimes 
equal ? Cf . 68, g and 7. 

73. The Preposition 'with.' — Study the use of with in the 

following sentences : — 

a. The general fought with his men. 

b. The general fought with the enemy. 

c. The soldiers fight with great bravery. 

d. The soldiers fight with lances. 

1. (1) In which of the above sentences does with mean in 
company with, i.e., denote Accompaniment? (2) In which 
does it denote Hostile Union? (3) In which does it 



SYNTAX. 83 

mean by means of ? (4) In which does the phrase intro- 
duced bj with show the Manner in which the action is 
performed ? 

2. The study of the prepositions of, for, and with, just 
made, shows that they are used in a surprising number of 
different senses, and we cannot be surprised to find that 
some of the meanings conveyed by these prepositions are 
conveyed in other languages by means quite different from 
those employed in English. 

74. Lack of Precision in the English Use of Prepositions 
and Tenses. — Compare the idiomatic English expressions 
on the left with the more accurate but less idiomatic 
expressions on the right : — 



d* He put it in the bag. 

c. Where w^ill you go ? 

e. Looking up, he beheld 
the figure of a stranger. 

g* "When he comes, I shall 
go. 

I' He hopes to come. 



h. He put it into the bag. 

d. Whither will you go ? 

f> Having looked up, he be- 
held the figure of a stranger. 

Jl. When he shall have 
come, I shall go. 

J. He hopes that he will 
come. 



1. From examples a, J, e^ and d we see that an English 
verb clearly conveying the idea of motion is often used 
with an adverb or a preposition conveying the idea of rest 
in a place. 

Sometimes the more accurate expression is not permis- 
sible in English ; we cannot say, they will meet to the cor- 
ner, although meet clearly expresses motion toward^ but 
must use the more indefinite phrase at the corner. 

Sometimes conventional English requires a preposition 
appropriate to motion toward where the sense requires one 



84 mDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

appropriate to motion from, as in the phrase averse to, — 
averse meaning turned away} 

2. In which of the sentences above does the English 
use a verbal form referring to the present where the sense 
is past? In which does it use a present for a future per- 
fect? In which a present for a future ? 

3. The pupil will see from the above that the English 
language is somewhat vague and inaccurate in its use of 
prepositions and tenses. It is very necessary to remember 
this fact in translating English into other languages, or 
other languages into English. 

75, Omission of Words. — Supply omitted words in the 
following sentences, so that the grammatical construction 
of each word will be plain : — 

a. It was little better than a dungeon. 

h. And then would he reckon over the coins in the bag, toss 
up the bar, sift the gold-dust through his fingers, and look at 
the funny image of his face as reflected in the circumference of 
the cup. 

c. The remotest corners w^ere lighted up as with tips of 
flame. 

d. This is the day we celebrate. 

e. He is as old as I. 

f. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

g. He said they were playing. 

A. I am weary of collecting my treasures with so much 
trouble, and beholding the heap so diminutive. 

1 While we must not quarrel with the usage of the language, the pupil 
should clearly understand that the usage here is arbitrary and conven- 
tional. If we expect our pupils to be intelligent, we must not rebuke 
them too sharply when they use their intelligence in saying averse from, 
and to meet to. 



SYNTAX. 85 

i. " What is the matter, father ? " '' Nothing, child, nothing," 
said Midas ; '' eat your bread and milk." 

J, Who carves his thought in marble will not scorn these 
pictured bubbles. 

k. He was born March 6, 1840. 

1. (1) What common verb is often omitted in some 
of the above sentences? (2) What conjunction is used 
before an omission in several? (3) In which one is a 
relative pronoun omitted? (4) In which is a conjunc- 
tion omitted? (6) In which is the antecedent of a relative 
omitted ? For the construction of h and A, see 53, l. 

2. Note this important fact, — that the word or words 
to be supplied are very often suggested by words which 
precede. 

3. We may see from the above sentences that the omis- 
sion of words necessary to make complete sense is by no 
means uncommon in English. We ought not to wonder, 
then, if we find some instances of it in other languages 
which we may study. 

ORDER OF WORDS. 

76. Study the order of words in the following sentences 
and phrases : — 

<Z. He lay in a disconsolate mood, regretting the downfall of 
his hopes. 

h. He had a little daughter, whom nobody but myself ever 
heard of. 

C. He gave all his thoughts and all his time to this one 
purpose. 

d. He had planted a garden, in which grew the biggest and 
beautifulest roses that any mortal ever saw or smelt. 

e. He thought to himself that it was rather an extravagant 
style of splendor, in a king of his simple habits, to breakfast off 
a service of gold. 



86 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

/. Your own little Marygold, warm, soft, and loving, as she 
was an hour ago. 

g. Will you never regret the possession of it ? 

h. In those quiet old winter evenings, around our Roman 
fireside, it was not seldom, my dear Storg, that we talked of 
the advantages of travel. 

^. Whether Midas slept as usual that night, the story does 
not say. 

J . Then would he reckon over the coins in the bag. 

k, AH these things we debated. 

I* The child was so occupied by her grief for the blighted 
roses that she did not even notice the vronderful transmutation 
of her china bowl. 

TYl, But this was only a passing thought. 

71* Whatever moulds of various brain 

E'er shaped the world to weal or woe, 

Whatever empires wax and wane. 

To him who hath not eyes in vain. 
His village-microcosm can show.i 

1. (1) In which and in how many of the above clauses 
do the adverbial modifiers follow the verb ? (2) In which 
do they precede ? (3) In which does the object precede 
the verb ? (4) In which does it follow ? (5) In which 
does the subject come first ? (6) In which does it follow 
its verb? 

Note that in interrogative sentences (cf . ^) this always 
occurs ; note, too, that a relative always comes first in its 
clause, whether it is an object or subject. Cf. 6, c?, and for 

1 The teacher will note the order here — direct object, indirect object, 
subject, verb ; a somewhat unusual order, and yet the meaning is per- 
fectly clear. The rigidity of English word-order is often much exagger- 
ated ; it is hardly rigid at all. 



SYNTAX. 87 

the reason of this, see 20, 5. (7) In which do adjectives 
stand before their nouns? (8) In which after? (9) In 
which does the preposition follow its case ? 

2. (1) Note that result clauses, and clauses in indirect 
discourse, usually follow the verb on which they depend. 
Cf. e and I. (2) Note that adjectives and pronouns have a 
tendency to stand near their nouns, and that if they are 
much removed, it must be where no obscurity would be 
caused thereby. Cf. <x, 5, c?,/. (3) Note that the principal 
subject and verb are not likely to be much separated.^ 

3. From the study of these representative English sen- 
tences, the pupil will see that much variation in English 
word-order is permissible, and that the order is a misleading 
guide to the grammatical construction. The only way to 
succeed in giving the construction of the words in a sen- 
tence is to study carefully the meaning of the sentence. 

77. Pick out the emphatic words in the following sen- 
tences : — 

d* The general deceived the king. 

h. It -was the king -who was deceived by the general. 

c. It -was the general who deceived the king. 

d. It was deception which the general practiced on the king. 
6. Very delicious was their fragrance. 

f* To him who, in the love of nature, holds communion with 
her visible forms, she speaks a various language. 

g* The wise man travels to discover himself; it is to find 
himself out that he goes out of himself. 

A. After all, my dear Storg, it is to know things that one 
has need to travel, and not (to know) men. Those force us to 
come to them, but these come to us. 

1 Here is an important difference between English and Latin. 



88 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

I* Some years ago a ship was launched here with her rig- 
ging, spars, sails, and cargo aboard. 

J . But, oh dear, dear me ! What do you think has happened ? 
Such a misfortune! All the beautiful roses, that smelled so 
sweetly and had so many lovely blushes, are blighted and 
spoilt ! 

1. Note that the sentence a contains no emphatic word, 
and how each word is made emphatic in J, c^ and d^ by 
bringing it to the end of a clause introduced by the tem- 
porary subject it. Cf. 51. 

2. Note that emphasis always suggests contrast, a strong 
affirmative suggests an equally strong negative : thus in 
5, it was the king, not the people nor the prime minister ; 
in /, it is the lover of nature to whom she speaks, not the 
man who cares little for her. 

3. In ^, the order indicates that for a ship to be launched 
with her spars aboard was remarkable, but to be launched 
with sails was more remarkable, while to be launched with 
a cargo aboard was most remarkable. Note, too, how in 
j the interest of the reader is increased by exclamations 
and rapid statements until it reaches its height at the word 
spoilt. 

Such a ladder of ascending steps is called a Climax. 

4. Note that the emphatic points in the above clauses 
are at the end or at the beginning. 



PUNCTUATION. 

78. Study the marks employed in the following ex- 
tract : — 

Little Mary gold had not yet made her appearance. Her 
father ordered her to be called, and, seating himself at table, 
awaited the child's coming, in order to begin his own break- 
fast. To do Midas justice, he really loved his daughter, and 
loved her so much the more this morning, on account of the 
good fortune which had befallen him. It was not a great 
while before he heard her coming along the passagevray crying 
bitterly. This circumstance surprised him, because Marygold 
was one of the cheerfulest little people whom you would see 
in a summer's day, and hardly shed a thimbleful of tears in a 
twelvemonth. When Midas heard her sobs, he determined 
to put little Marygold into better spirits, by an agreeable sur- 
prise ; so, leaning across the table, he touched his daughter's 
bow^l (which was a China one, w^ith pretty figures all around 
it), and transmuted it to gleaming gold. 

Meanwhile, Marygold slowly and disconsolately opened 
the door, and showed herself with her apron at her eyes, 
still sobbing as if her heart would break. 

<' How now, my little lady!" cried Midas. "Pray, what is 
the matter with you, this bright morning?" 

Marygold, without taking the apron from her eyes, held 
out her hand, in which was one of the roses which Midas 
had so recently transmuted. 

"Beautiful!" exclaimed her father. "And what is there in 
this magnificent golden rose to make you cry?" 

89 



90 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

" Ah, dear father ! " ans-wered the child, as -well as her sobs 
would let hex ; " it is not beautiful, but the ugliest flower that 



ever grew 



Study the classification of sentences in 50. 

1. An exclamatory sentence is one which expresses 
strong emotion. 

Make and describe the mark which is used at the end 
of exclamatory sentences in the above extract. Find one 
or more instances in which this mark is used after ex- 
clamatory words. See also examples in 16. 

Such a mark is called a Mark of Exclamation. 

2. What mark is used after an interrogative sentence 
or word? Such a mark is called a Maek of Interro- 
gation. 

8. What mark is used at the end of a declarative sen- 
tence ? This mark is called a Period. 

4. Note, however, that the last sentence in the first para- 
graph on page 89 is divided into two sentences separated 
by a mark called a Semicolon, [;]. Note that, while 
the second of these sentences is grammatically indepen- 
dent, it completes and explains that which is stated in 
the first. Note, also, the relation of the two sentences 
separated by a semicolon in the last paragraph above. 

6. Note in the following sentence a use of the period 
additional to that of 3 : — 

We know that Rev. J. D. Rogers, D.D., was born in Boston, 
Mass., Jan. 6, 1847. 

After what abbreviations is it used? After what initial 
letters ? 

79. The Comma. — The mark [,] is called a comma. 
Study its use in the extract of 78. 



PUNCTUATIO]N'. 91 

1. Find four instances in which it is used just before 
the conjunction which connects the second clause of a 
compound sentence. (See 49, 3.) 

2. Note carefully the punctuation before and after subor- 
dinate or dependent clauses. (See 48, 2, and 49, 2.) When 
the subordinate clause precedes the principal clause, as in 
When Midas heard her sobs, he determined to put Marygold 
into better spirits, it is always separated by a comma. 

3. Note the difference of punctuation before the subordi- 
nate clause beginning with because and that beginning with 
whom in the middle of the first paragraph on page 89. 
What is this difference ? Note that the principal clause 
would be complete without the clause beginning with 
because, but that the clause beginning with whom is 
essential to the completeness of what immediately pre- 
cedes it. 

4. What mark of punctuation, when not an exclamation 
point, is used with vocative cases and interjections ? (See 16 
and 21, 4.) Compare the punctuation of other somewhat 
disconnected and parenthetical words or expressions, such 
as, seating himself at table ; in order to begin his ow^n 
breakfast ; meanwhile ; without taking the apron from her 
eyes. 

5. Note, however, that, where the expression is still 
more parenthetical and unnecessary to the sense, Marks 
OF Parenthesis, as in (which was a China one, with 
pretty figures all around it), are used. 

80. The Semicolon and Colon ; their Relation. — Note 
the punctuation in the following passages : — 

a* It is not a barrier ; for it does not separate him from 
them : but it is an atmosphere through which he makes his 
approaches. It is the atmosphere of Philistinism. 



92 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

h. They laid the corner-stone of modern law 

On one broad truth with which the world has rung : 
Free public education for the young. 

1. The mark [:] used above is called a Colon. 

2. Note that in a the colon indicates a separation in 
thought between the second and third clauses greater 
than that indicated by the semicolon which stands between 
the first and second, but not so great as that indicated by 
the period which stands between the third and fourth. 

3. Note that in b the colon stands before the complete 
statement which we are led to expect from what precedes ; 
the last line here expresses the '' one broad truth " men- 
tioned in the second line. The colon is often thus used 
to indicate that something which we have been led to 
expect is coming. It is especially common before a direct 
quotation (see 67, c) of some length. 

81. The Dash, Apostrophe, and Quotation Marks. — Note 
the marks in the following sentences : — 

"A lawyer who can play the piano seems to me like a — - 
like a — contradiction of terms. I don't believe he'll ever be 
w^orth a red cent. I should never feel as if I could consent — '* 

"Mother!" exclaimed Jenny, who had a presentiment of 
what was coming next. 

1. Note that the mark [ — ], as used above twice after 
like a, suggests hesitation in speech ; as used after consent, 
it suggests an abrupt interruption. This mark is called 
a Dash. 

2. Note its use in connection with the colon after the 
word sentences in the second line of this section. (See 
80, 3.) The dash is often thus combined with the colon when 
what follows is more than one short sentence. 



PUNCTUATION. 93 

3. Dashes ai'e sometimes used, as in 72, /, with the same 
value as marks of parenthesis. (See 79, 5.) 

4. Note the omissions in the words don't and he'u. 
The mark which indicates these omissions is called an 
Apostrophe. For its use to form the possessive case, 
cf. 23. 

5. What marks are used to inclose a direct quotation? 
(See 67.) Note carefully the difference between the pair 
of marks which introduce the quotation and the pair 
which close it. These are called Quotation Marks. 

82. The Use of Punctuation. — ''In the construction of all 
but very short sentences, punctuation plays an important 
part. Properly managed, it helps the reader to get at 
the meaning of what is written or printed; for it serves 
to separate words that do not belong together, and to 
unite words that do." ^ 

In the use of the marks of punctuation, considerable 
freedom is permissible. In many cases a writer may, for 
instance, insert or leave out a comma; or use either a 
comma or a semicolon, a colon or a period. He must not, 
however, obscure the meaning by his use of punctuation 
or be inconsistent with himself. 

"Assistance may be obtained from a few simple rules 
founded on the principle that the purpose of every point is 
to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in 
which it occurs. One who knows few rules, but who has 
mastered the fundamental principles of construction, will 
punctuate far better than one who slavishly follows a set 
of formulas. A student of punctuation should ask him- 
self why in a given case to put in a stop rather than why 
to leave one out ; for the insertion of unnecessary stops is, 

1 A. S. HilPs, *'The Foundations of Rhetoric," page 23. 



94 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

on the whole, more likely to mislead a reader than is the 
omission of necessary ones." ^ 

83. Capital Letters. — Note the use of capitals in the 
extract in 78. 

1. Does the first word of a paragraph begin with a 
capital or a small letter? 

2. After what mark of punctuation is a capital invari- 
ably used? Capitals are also used after interrogation 
and exclamation points where they indicate a complete 
stop. Note, however, the punctuation after the excla- 
mation points in 78. 

3. What kind of a letter begins each line of poetry in 
76, n^ and 80, h ? 

4. What letter introduces the direct quotation in 67, c ? 
An exception to this rule sometimes occurs when the 
quotation is short or is very closely connected with what 
precedes. 

6. Note, in 81, that the personal pronoun I is written 
with a capital ; the same is true of the interjection O. 

6. Note the headings of sections 74, 75, 80, 83. What 
words are in capitals ? What words in small letters ? The 
same rule applies to the titles of books. 

7. Collect from 78 ; 78, 5 ; 80, a ; 81, all the nouns you 
can find which name single individuals and not whole 
classes. What kind of a letter begins each noun? Which 
are names of men or women? Which names a city? 
Which a state? Which is an adjective from the name 
of a country? Which is a title of honor or respect? 

1 A. S. Hiirs, " General Rules for Punctuation." 



THE RELATION OP ENGLISH TO OTHER 
LANGUAGES. 

84. In its History and Vocabulary. — The Anglo-Saxon 
speech, which is the parent of our modern English, was 
introduced into England by the Angles and Saxons, Teu- 
tonic tribes, who came from the country between the 
Rhine and the Elbe, and began to settle and conquer 
England in 449 a.d. 

In 1066 the Anglo-Saxons were conquered by the 
Normans, who lived in Northern France and spoke Norman 
French. In process of time the Normans adopted the 
language of the Anglo-Saxons, but enriched it with many 
French words. 

In 1453, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, 
many learned men who lived there went all over Europe 
teaching the Latin and Greek languages, which the people 
of France, England, and Germany had lost during the many 
centuries since the fall of the Roman empire. The great 
literatures of Greece and Rome were recovered with eager- 
ness. This movement is called the '' Revival of Learning." 
One effect of it was to lead rtt once to the introduction of 
a great many Latin and Greek words into English, and this 
process of borrowing words from Latin and Greek has been 
going on ever since. 

In estimating the influence of Latin upon English, we 
must remember that the French introduced by the Nor- 
mans was itself based upon the Latin, for the Romans, 
under the great Caesar, had conquered Gaul, which is now 
France, about fifty years before Christ, and the natives of 
that country had adopted the language of their con- 

95 



96 INDUCTIVE STUDIES IN ENGLISH. 

querors. Of the 100,000 words in the English language, 
one half came directly or indirectly from Latin. 

The Anglo-Saxon was a Teutonic language, like mod- 
ern German, and many of our English words are closely 
related in form to German words having the same meaning. 

Thus we see from the history of the English language, 
how helpful to a knowledge of English the study of Latin, 
Greek, German, and French may be. 

85. In its Grammar. — The Normans had comparatively 
few inflections in their own language, and, in learning the 
Anglo-Saxon, they neglected the endings of the words, 
using prepositions or other complete words in their place. 
(See 38, 46.) The result has been that English now has 
very few inflectional endings. 

While, for example, we use the word gift for both the 
subject and the object of an active verb, our Anglo-Saxon 
forefathers said giefu, gift^ when they used the word as a 
subject, but giefe when they used the word as an object, 
and often when they wished to say for gifts^ they used the 
dative plural giefum. (See 62.) 

. The word giefu is of the feminine gender, and not neuter, 
as we call gift. With the Anglo-Saxons many nam^s of 
things were masculine or feminine. (See 42 and footnote.) 

Adjectives as well as nouns had case inflections (see 
22, 2, and 25), and there were many more inflectional end- 
ings for verbs than now. (See 31 and 38.) 

But this process of losing endings has not been going 
on in all languages ; so, when an English student begins 
to learn Latin or German or Greek, he finds that many 
ideas are expressed by letters at the beginning or the mid- 
dle or the end of a word which are expressed in his own 
language by separate words. 



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